BURKETTandSWARTZEL 


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FARM  ARITHMETIC 

TO  BE  USED  WITH  ANY  TEXT-BOOK 
OF  ARITHMETIC  OR  WITHOUT 


By 

CHARLES  WILLIAM  BURKETT 

Editor  American  Agriculturist 

Formerly  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  Nenv  Hampshire  and  the  North 

Carolina    Colleges    of  Agriculture  and   Mechanic   Arts,  and 

Director  of  the  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

and 

KARL  DALE  SWARTZEL 

Professor  of  Mathematics ,  Ohio  State  Uni'versity 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

LONDON 

KEGAN   PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.,  Limited 

1913 


Copyright,  1913,  by 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall 
LONDON,  ENGLAND 


'.;'  ;  '/'J,  J 


Printed  in  U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE. 

This  book  is  primarily,  as  its  title  implies,  a  farm 
arithmetic.  It  is  not  intended  to  be  a  medium  for  the 
setting  forth  of  the  general  principles  of  arithmetic.  It 
is  hoped  that  it  may  serve  two  other  very  important  ends 
in  elementary  and  higher  schools.  First,  it  will  supply 
new,  concrete,  useful,  and  interesting  problems  for  prac- 
tice, drill,  and  review.  Second,  it  will  tend  to  develop 
in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  an  appreciation  of  and  an  insight 
into  the  quantitative  side  of  farm  life.  A  boy  or  girl 
who  has  once  become  interested  in  solving  the  problems 
of  the  farm  will  not  easily  be  drawn  away  from  the  farm. 

This  book  may  be  used  at  any  time  after  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  arithmetic  have  been  covered,  i.  e., 
during  the  last  two  or  three  years  of  the  elementary 
school,  and  should  ordinarily  be  completed  before  the  high 
school  is  reached.  It  may  be  used  alone  or  in  conjunc- 
tion with  any  standard  grammar  school,  advanced,  or  high 
school  arithmetic. 

It  is  also  hoped  that  this  volume  may  be  helpful  to  a 
large  number  of  farmers  and  country  folk  generally  who 
are  interested  in  the  many  numerical  and  quantitative 
problems  that  have  so  much  to  do  with  success  on  the 
farm. 

Charles  W.  Burkett, 
Karl  D.  Swartzel. 
May,  1913. 

284628 


TO  THE  TEACHER. 

There  is  much  in  modern  higher  arithmetic  that  is  of  but 
little  value  to  certain  classes  of  pupils.  Particularly  is  this 
true  of  the  subject  matter  of  many  text-books  now  in  use 
in  rural  schools — country,  town,  and  village.  These  books 
were  made  by  city  people  for  city  children  and  are,  for  the 
most  part,  admirably  adapted  to  city  schools.  The  prob- 
lems deal  very  largely  with  city  affairs  and  occupations. 
Now,  it  is  a  fact  that  the  fundamentals  of  arithmetic  may 
be  stated  in  terms  of  agriculture  and  that  such  a  statement 
is  much  needed  in  rural  life  affairs. 

The  main  object  to  be  secured  in  the  study  of  arith- 
metic is  to  learn  to  "think  number" — i.  e.,  to  learn  to  think 
quantitatively.  After  the  elements  of  number  study  are 
mastered  the  field  opens  up  in  distinct  directions.  There 
is  little  use  of  spending  many  weeks  on  problems  of  cube 
root,  partial  payments,  bank  discount,  stocks  and  bonds, 
merchandising,  etc.,  in  the  rural  and  country  town  schools, 
since  these  subjects  seldom,  if  ever,  enter  into  the  lives  of 
the  children. 

Arithmetic  may  be  taught  in  terms  of  agriculture. 
The  household,  the  soil,  the  dairy,  the  field,  the  crops, 
and  the  animals  offer  wonderful  opportunities  for 
the  introduction  of  number  and  arithmetical  problems  into 
the  school  work  as  a  vital  part  of  the  life  of  the  children. 
Thus  farm  arithmetic  falls  directly  into  line  with  the  en- 
vironment of  farm  boys  and  girls. 

On  the  other  hand,  agriculture  may  be  taught  in  terms 
of  arithmetic.  When  so  taught  the  real  nature  of  the  all  im- 
portant problems  with  which  the  country  youth  of  the 
present  and  the  future  must  deal,  both  in  school  and  after 

yii 


Vlll  TO    THE    TEACHER 

taking  up  home  and  farm  life,  will  become  apparent  to 
him  and  will  receive  adequate  attention  at  his  hands. 
Farm  arithmetic,  therefore,  should  be  a  basic  study  in 
every  school  in  every  rural  community. 

USING   THE   BOOK. 

After  the  ordinary  elementary  work  in  arithmetic  has 
been  covered,  this  book  should  follow  at  once.  The 
fundamentals  of  the  first  books  in  arithmetic  will  find 
application  and  expression  in  this.  In  case  it  is  desired 
that  further  study  be  required  in  higher  arithmetic,  this 
book  may  be  made  a  supplementary  text,  alternating  with 
the  other  in  the  regular  weekly  periods.  The  problems 
should  be  solved  and  the  informational  questions  dis- 
cussed and  answered  in  the  same  manner  as  is  followed 
in  the  use  of  an  ordinary  text-book  on  higher  arithmetic. 

The  authors  believe  that  an  earnest  use  of  this  book 
in  the  schools  will  be  of  inestimable  value  to  every  child. 
This  will  be  apparent  both  in  the  present  school  work  and 
in  the  practical  results  when  school  days  are  over  and  the 
text-book  problem  becomes  the  real  problem  of  the  home 
and  farm.  In  every  way  the  book  aims  to  teach  arithmetic 
in  terms  of  agriculture  and  agriculture  in  terms  of  arith- 
metic, and  to  be  a  real  part  of  the  country  life  environ- 
ment. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

Chapter  Page 

I.     Plant  Feeding 1 

II.     Animal   Feeding  41 

III.  Human  Feeding 60 

IV.  Dairy  Products 72 

V.    Soil 88 

VI.    Field  Crops  99 

VII.    Fruits  and  Vegetables 114 

VIII.    Farm  Animals 123 

IX.    Hand  and  Machine  Labor 143 

X.    Farm  Mechanics 149 

XL    Farm  Buildings 171 

XII.    Roads  180 

XIIL    Farm  Drainage 184 

XIV.     Silos 189 

XV.    Meat  Products 197 

XVL    Forestry  209 

XVII.    Rules  and  Measures 220 

XVIII.     Concrete  Construction 230 

XIX.    Farm  Accounts 237 

XX.    Miscellaneous  Problems 243 

Answers  to  Problems 251 

Appendix 259 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

What  plants  contain 2 

Common  elements  in  two  leading  crops 3 

When  a  ton  is  sold 5 

How  a  boy  beat  the  average 7 

Dairy  farming  helps  the  land 8 

Locked  up  for  ages  to  come 10 

With  and  without  fertilizer 11 

Increasing  the  potato  yield  13 

Changing  the  timothy  ration 14 

No  question  about  value  of  manure 16 

Plant  food  in  bag  of  fertilizer 19 

Fertilizer    distributor    20 

Seven  of  our  leading  farm  products 21 

Alfalfa  plant  and  roots 22 

Manure  spreader  at  work 24 

Plant  food  in  corn 26 

Homemade  tool  for  liming  the  land 28 

Why  is  the  difference  so  great? 29 

Two  kinds  of  farming 31 

Feeding  cattle  in  the  field 32 

Two  crops  at  the  same  time 35 

Crimson  clover  ready  for  cutting 37 

On  most  farms  hogs  have  a  place 39 

Relative  amounts  of  the  weight  of  green  plants  obtained  from 

water,  air  and  soil 41 

Increasing  the  farm  protein  supply 42 

Protein  in  clover  hay 44 

Nutritive  ratio  of  some  common  feeding  stuflFs ' 46 

Growing  plants  contain  much  water 48 

Producing  milk  under  sanitary  conditions  52 

Poor  way  to  feed  sheep 54 

Money  is  made  where  the  right  feed  is  provided 57 

Pure-bred  dairy  cattle  at  pasture 59 

Where  peace  and  sympathy  abound 62 

Protein  the  same  in  all 63 

Quick  cooling  of  milk  always  retards  bacterial  growth 64 

Rump  cut  from  high-grade  animal 65 

Growth  of   bacteria   66 

Of  fine  form  and  high  quality 67 

Mineral  matter  in  some  common  foods 68 

Different  kinds  of  flour  compared 69 

Milk  pail 72 

ad 


Xll  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Dairy  cows  at  pasture 73 

Babcock  tester  glassware  75 

Babcock  milk  tester  76 

Churning  in  the  olden  days 78 

Modern   cream   separator   79 

Combined  churn  and  butter  worker 80 

Rounding  out  the  cheese 82 

In  the  curing  room 84 

Bottled  milk  ready  for  market 86 

Getting  samples  of  soil  from  fields 88 

Getting  humus  into  the  soil 90 

Disking  the  ground  before  plowing 92 

Plowing  levees  for  rice 93 

Two  ways  of  growing  corn 95 

The  plow  comes  first  in  all  tillage  operations 97 

Modern  tools  on  large  hay  farm 100 

Cotton  ready  for  the  pickers 102 

Crimson  clover  a  fine  cover  crop 105 

Corn  improved  by  selection 107 

Seeding  corn  land  to  wheat  109 

Cotton  bolls 111 

This  plowing  is  ideal 112 

Cultivating  beans 115 

Spraying  the  orchard   117 

Engine  power  used  in  orchard 119 

Remarkable  Leghorn  and  her  achievements 122 

Out  for  an  airing 124 

Prize  winning  Shorthorn  cattle 126 

Hackney,  typical  of  the  harness  class 128 

Cheapest  gains  are  made  with  young  animals 132 

Relation  between  daily  gain  in  weight  and  age  in  days 133 

Relation  between  cost  per  100  pounds  of  gain  and  age  in  days  134 

Jersey  cow  showing  dairy  type 135 

Angus  steer  showing  beef  type 136 

Section  of  cow  stable  floor 138 

Supper  time  for  the  pigs 139 

Trio  of  light  Brahmas 141 

Giant  harvesters  at  work 144 

Various  types  of  sickles 145 

American   cradle    146 

Threshing  the  wheat 147 

Track  contrivance  for  feeding  cattle 150 

Relative  cost  of  power  when  supplied  by  horse  and  by  man —  151 

Belgian  stallion,  showing  draft  type 153 

Covered  barnyard  of  small  cost 157 

Before  the  coming  of  modern  wagons 164 

Fattening  steers 168 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  Xlil 

Page 

How  to  measure  grade  with  level  and  rule 170 

Dairy  barn  up  to  date  and  fully  equipped 172 

Small  barn,  36  x  40  feet 173 

Floor  plan  of  small  barn  175 

Elevation  of  end  of  roof,  with  three-fifths  pitch 177 

Making  the  old  roads  better 181 

Why  good  roads  pay  182 

Old  land  remade  by  drainage 185 

The  area  is  just  the  same 190 

Dairy  herd  and  barns 192 

Filling    the    silo    194 

Ready  for  market 197 

Retail  beef  cuts  and  weight 198 

Retail  cuts  of  mutton  199 

Retail  cuts  of  pork 200 

Hog  carcass  in  four  parts 203 

Hams,  trimmed  and  untrimmcd 204 

Butchering  outfit  205 

Smoking  meat 206 

Grove  of  black  walnut  trees 208 

Growing  timber  as  farm  crop  212 

Heavy  loss  en  route  to  market 214 

Sledding  time  218 

Using  poles  to  get  height  of  tree 221 

Plant  food  in  cotton 224 

Seed  cotton  ready  to  be  ginned 226 

Layout  of  farm,  showing  fields 229 

Constructed  of  concrete  throughout 231 

Concrete   fence  posts  233 

Concrete  water  tank 234 

Forms  for  making  concrete  hog  troughs 235 

Interior  of  cow  barn,  showing  concrete  construction 239 


FARM  ARITHMETIC 


CHAPTER  I. 

PLANT  FEEDING. 

Farming  profits  are  derived  directly  and  indirectly 
from  the  soil ;  directly  through  the  growing  of  plants  and 
indirectly  through  the  feeding  of  animals.  The  wise 
farmer,  therefore,  gives  much  thought  to  the  care  and  en- 
richment of  the  land.  Although  the  greater  part  of  the 
substance  actually  entering  into  the  growth  of  plants 
comes  from  water  and  air,  all  plant  growth  may  be  said 
to  depend  upon  the  soil.  The  comparatively  small  part 
which  comes  from  the  soil  is  absolutely  essential  to  the 
growth  of  the  plant  and  must  be  present  in  a  sufficient 
quantity  and  in  the  proper  form. 

Where  plants  get  their  food.  The  young  plant  be- 
ginning its  life  obtains  its  first  food  from  the  seed.  With 
this  food  it  starts  its  roots  into  the  soil  and  its  stems  and 
leaves  into  the  air.  Both  roots  and  leaves  begin  imme- 
diately to  gather  food  for  further  growth. 

The  leaves  take  from  the  air  carbon  and  oxygen. 

The  roots  take  from  the  soil  water  (oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen), nitrates  (nitrogen),  phosphoric  acid  (phosphorus), 
potash  (potassium),  lime  (calcium),  iron,  sulphur,  sodi- 
um, chlorine,  magnesium,  silicon,  manganese,  etc. 

Composition  of  plants.  A  mixture  of  all  kinds  of 
plants  after  having  all  moisture  driven  off  by  heat,  con- 
tains the  following  percentages  of  elements : 


«c       •     «  •  «.    a 
•         •    •      4      Km 

;.:i5oii:s%.:|.'     J 

V Ni 


[ineralAsh  5% 
itrogen  1.5% 
Hydrogen  6.5% 


From 
Air   and  ■( 
Water 

93.5% 


Oxygen  42% 


Carbon  45%. 


What  Plants  Contain. 
2 


PLANT    FEEDING. 

3 

Element 

Per  cent. 

Where  it  came  from 

Carbon, 

45 

Air 

Oxygen, 

42 

Air  and  water 

Hydrogen, 

6.5 

Air  and  water 

Nitrogen, 

1.5 

Soil 

Minerals  (« 

ish),         5 

Soil 

Total, 


100.0 


1.  In  a  ton  of  dried  mixed  plants  how  many  pounds 
of  carbon?  How  many  pounds  of  each  of  the  other 
constituents  ? 


Nltroger\ 


CORN      <  PKospKc 


vPo-taaslum 


Nitrogen 


WHEAT<  PKospKorus 


VpotassLvjm 

Common  Elements  in  Two  Leading  Crops. 

As  shown  in  the  table  the  amount  of  carbon  is  45  per 
cent  (45%)  of  the  total  weight.  To  solve  this  problem 
we  must  find  45%  of  2,000  pounds.  One  per  cent  (1%) 
of  a  number  means  one  part  in  one  hundred  parts,  which 
is  the  same  as  saying  one  one-hundredth  (.01)  part  of  the 
number.  45%  is  .45  of  the  number.  To  get  45%  of  a 
number  we  therefore  multiply  by  .45. 


4  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

Solution : 
45%  of  2,000  pounds  =  .45  X  2,000  pounds  =  900  pounds. 

Answer :  900  pounds  carbon. 

Note. — The  above  solution  may  be  made  as  follows: 

1%  of  2,000  pounds  =  20  pounds. 
45%  of  2,000  pounds  ==  45  X  20  pounds  =  900  pounds. 

Solution  for  the  remaining  constituents : 

2,000  X  .42    =  840 Oxygen 

2,000  X  .065  =  130 Hydrogen 

2,000  X  .015  =    30 Nitrogen 

2,000  X  .05    —  100 Mineral 

900 Carbon 

Total 2,000 

This  addition  serves  to  check  or  prove  the  correctness  of  the 
work. 

2.     How  many  pounds  in  each  ton  are  obtained  from 
the  soil  ?     From  the  air  and  water  ? 


Wheat  contains : 

Carbon 

In  grain 46.1 

In  straw 48.4 

Oxygen 
43.4 
38.9 

Hydrogen 
5.8 
5.3 

Nitrogen 
2.3 
0.6 

Ash 
2.4 
7.0 

Note. — The  percentages  given  in  the  preceding  table,  as  well 
as  in  those  to  follow,  are  merely  average  values.  The  corre- 
sponding percentages  for  any  given  sample  may  differ  greatly 
from  these  figures.  For  example,  two  varieties  of  corn  grown 
in  the  same  soil  and  under  the  same  climatic  conditions  may  have 
greatly  different  chemical  analyses.  This  may  also  be  true  of 
two  samples  of  the  same  variety  grown  under  different  climatic 
conditions  or  in  different  soils. 

3.  In  producing  a  ton  of  wheat,  how  many  pounds 
come  from  the  soil?    A  ton  of  wheat  straw? 

4.  How  many  pounds  of  carbon  in  25  bushels  (60 
pounds  each)  of  wheat? 

5.  When  wheat  yields  25  bushels  of  dry  grain  an  acre 


PLANT   FEEDING.  » 

and  two  tons  of  dry  straw,  how  many  pounds  of  soil  ma- 
terial have  been  removed? 

The  three  important  elements.  As  a  rule  all  the  soil 
elements  essential  to  the  growth  of  plants,  except  nitro- 
gen, phosphorus  and  potassium,  are  abundantly  present 
in  the  soil.  These  are  therefore  the  only  ones  with  which 
the  farmer  is  seriously  concerned  in  the  feeding  of  his 
plants.  The  problem  of  fertilizing  the  land  demands 
a  careful  study  of  these  three  very  important  elements. 


What  Crops  Remove  From  Soil 

,  IN  Per  Cent. 

Crop 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Com 

Wheat 

Oats 

Cotton  Lint 

1.9 
2.4 
2.1 
0.3 
1.3 
0.2 
1.0 
0.6 
0.6 
3.1 

0.7 
0.9 
0.8 
0.1 
0.5 
0.1 
0.3 
0.1 
0.2 
1.3 

0.4 
0.6 
0.6 
0.4 

Timothy 

Potatoes 

0.9 
0.3 

Com  Stover 

1  4 

Wheat  Straw 

0  5 

Oat  Straw 

1  2 

Cottonseed 

1.2 

6.  How  much  nitrogen  is  removed  from  the  soil  in 
one  ton  of  shelled  corn?  How  much  phosphoric  acid? 
How  much  potash? 


WHEAT 


CORN 
TIMOTHY 
COTTON 
MILK 


6UTTER 

When  a  Ton  Is  Sold. 
The  relative  amounts  of  plant  food  removed  when  a  ton  of  each  product  is 
sold   is   indicated   in   the   sketch. 


6.  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

Solution: 

.019  X  2,000  pounds  =  38  pounds „....Nitrogen 

.007  X  2,000  pounds  =  14  pounds Phosphoric  acid 

.004  X  2,000  pounds  =    8  pounds Potash 

7.  When  corn  yields  40  bushels  an  acre,  how  many 
pounds  of  nitrogen  are  removed  from  each  acre  of  soil? 
Phosphoric  acid?     Potash? 

Solution:  If  a  bushel  of  shelled  corn  weighs  56  pounds,  40 
bushels  will  weigh  40  times  56  pounds  =  2,240  pounds. 

.019  X  2,240  pounds  =  46  pounds Nitrogen 

.007  X  2,240  pounds  =  16  pounds Phosphoric   acid 

.004  X  2,240  pounds  =  10  pounds Potash 

Note. — In  the  above  examples,  as  well  as  in  those  to  follow, 
the  answers  should  not  be  carried  out  to  a  greater  number  of 
significant  figures  than  are  shown  in  the  table.  The  reason  for 
this  is  obvious. 

8.  A  hundred  bushels  of  wheat,  weighing  60  pounds 
a  bushel,  would  represent  the  removal  from  the  soil  of 
how  much  nitrogen?  How  much  phosphoric  acid?  How 
much  potash? 

9.  A  20-acre  field  of  wheat  yielded  32  bushels  an  acre. 
What  was  the  draft  per  acre  upon  the  soil  for  nitrogen? 
For  phosphoric  acid?  For  potash?  For  the  three  com- 
bined ?  What  was  the  total  amount  of  each  of  these  three 
important  elements  removed  from  the  field? 

10.  When  oats  yield  50  bushels  (32  pounds  each)  an 
acre,  what  is  the  draft  upon  the  soil  for  these  three  ele- 
ments ? 

11.  What  is  the  draft  when  cotton  yields  one-half  bale 
(a  bale  weighs  495  pounds)  an  acre?  When  timoth\ 
yields  two  tons  an  acre  ?  When  potatoes  yield  100  bushels 
(60  pounds  each)  an  acre? 

12.  Jerry  Moore  of  South  Carolina,  a  member  of 
the  Boys'  Corn  Club,  raised  228^^  bushels  of  corn  in  1910 


PLANT   FEEDING.  7 

on  one  acre,  and  won  the  first  prize  for  the  state — a  trip 
to  Washington.  What  was  the  draft  upon  that  acre  of 
soil? 

Average  Production  Per  Acre  in  the  United  States. 

Wheat  Oats         Cotton  Corn        Timothy    Potatoes 

14  bushels    28-6  bushels    1-3  bale    29.4  bushels    1.1  tons    85  bushels 

13.  Determine  feeding  draft  on  the  soil  for  each  of 
the  above  crops  on  the  basis  of  the  average  produc- 
tion per  acre  in  the  United  States. 

aOKOu 

Av«>-aj«y;rldorcorn 


J%rry  Moore'a  yield  of  corn. 

Ho>x^  A  Boy  Beat  the  Average. 

Jerry  Moore's   acre  yield  of  corn  is  here  contrasted  with  the  average  yield  of 

the  county. 

14.  A  yield  of  14  bushels  of  wheat  and  1,680  pounds 
of  wheat  straw  per  acre  entails  what  loss  to  the  soil  in 
nitrogen?    What  loss  in  phosphoric  acid?     Potash? 

Solution  for  nitrogen: 
14  bushels  wheat  weighs  14  X  60  pounds  =  840  pounds. 

According  to  our  table,  page  5,  2.4%  of  this  is  nitrogen. 
.024   X   840  pounds  =  20  pounds. 

Our  table  shows  that  wheat  straw  is  .6%  nitrogen.  1,680 
pounds  would  therefore  contain 

.006  X  1,690  pounds  =  10  pounds Nitrogen 

In  an  average  crop  of  wheat  there  is  removed  from  the 
soil  20  pounds  -f-  10  pounds,  or  30  pounds,  of  nitrogen  an 
acre.  The  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  and  of  potash  may  be 
calculated  in  the  same  way,  and  will  be  found  to  be  9  pounds 
and  13  pounds  respectively. 

15.  Determine  number  of  pounds  of  each  kind  of 
plant  food  the  average  crop  of  corn  removes  from  the 
soil  when  the  yield  is  29.4  bushels  of  corn  and  two  tons 
of  stover  per  acre. 


6 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


16.  Determine  number  of  pounds  of  plant  food  an 
average  crop  of  cotton  removes  from  the  soil  when  the 
yield  of  cotton  lint  is  165  pounds  and  cottonseed  330 
pounds  an  acre. 

17.  Determine  number  of  pounds  of  plant  food  the 
average  oat  crop  removes  from  the  soil  when  yield  is  28.6 
bushels  and  2,400  pounds  straw  an  acre. 

Important  truth.  These  problems  show  how  the  soil 
is  depleted  when  various  crops,  including  cottonseed, 
corn  stover  and  straw,  are  sold  or  otherwise  not  returned 
to  the  land. 


BEEF 


MILK 


BUTTER 


WHEAT 


Dairy  Farming  Helps  the  Land. 


In  the  sketch  are  shown  the  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium 
removed  from  the  land  when  1,000  pounds  each  of  beef,  milk,  butter  and  wheat 
are  sold. 

18.  How  many  bushels  of  wheat  an  acre  has  been 
grown  when  36  pounds  of  nitrogen  are  removed  by  the 
grain  from  the  soil? 

Solution :  Wheat  grain  is  2.4%  nitrogen ;  therefore  2.4%  of  the 
number  of  pounds  of  wheat  per  acre  must  equal  36  pounds,  i.  e.: 

2.4%  =  36  pounds, 
1%  =  15  pounds, 
100%  =z  1,500  pounds  per  acre  or 
1,500  -^  60  =  25  bushels  an  acre. 

This  amounts  to  dividing  36  by  2.4  and  multiplying  the  result 
by  100,  which  is  the  same  as  dividing  36  by  .024. 

19.  In  problem  18,  suppose  the  36  pounds  to  be  the 


PLANT   FEEDING.  » 

total  nitrogen  removed,  and  suppose  the  weight  of  the 

straw  to  be  2^  times  that  of  the  grain. 

Solution:  2.4%  of  the  grain  is  nitrogen,  .6%  of  the  straw  is 
nitrogen,  and  since  there  is  2>2  times  as  much  straw  as  grain  the 
nitrogen  in  the  straw  amounts  to  2J/<  X  -6%,  or  1.5%  of  the  weight 
of  the  grain.  The  nitrogen  in  both  grain  and  straw,  therefore, 
amounts  to  2.4%  +  1.5%,  or  3.9%;  of  the  weight  of  the  grain.  The 
weight  of  the  grain  is  36  -^-  .039  =  920  pounds,  or  about  15 
bushels. 

20.  One  hundred  and  forty  pounds  of  nitrogen  were 
taken  from  a  10-acre  field  by  the  removal  of  cottonseed. 
What  was  the  yield  an  acre  in  pounds  of  seed  ? 

Plant  food  in  the  soil.  Forty-nine  different  soils 
were  analyzed.  They  showed  an  average  of  3,053  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  4,219  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  16,317 
pounds  of  potash  an  acre  in  the  upper  8  inches  of  soil. 

21.  How  many  average  crops  of  wheat  (14  bushels  of 
grain  and  1,680  pounds  of  straw)  will  this  nitrogen 
supply?     The  phosphoric  acid?     The  potash? 

22.  How  many  crops  if  only  the  grain  is  removed  and 
the  straw  is  returned  to  the  land  ? 

23.  How  many  crops  of  corn  (grain  29.4  bushels, 
stover  two  tons)  ? 

24.  How  many  crops  of  corn  if  the  stover  is  returned 
to  the  land? 

25.  How  many  crops  of  cotton  (165  pounds  lint,  330 
pounds  seed)  ? 

26.  How  many  crops  of  cotton  lint,  if  all  of  the  seed 
is  returned  to  the  land? 

Important  truth.  Almost  all  soils  contain  large 
quantities  of  plant  food.  Any  soil  will  become  unpro- 
ductive and  exhausted  long  before  it  is  depleted  of  plant 


10 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


food.  Good  tillage,  the  addition  of  straw,  stover,  cotton- 
seed, and  stable  manures,  and  the  frequent  growing  of 
clovers,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  and  soy  beans  will  increase  the 
quantity  of  plant  food  in  the  soil  and  will  improve  its 
productiveness.  Barnyard  manure  is  one  of  the  best  of 
all  fertilizing  materials. 

Buying  plant  food.     The  practice  of  purchasing  plant 


Locked  Up  for  Ages  to  Come 
All  rock  contains  plant  food.     Nature  releases  but  a 
amount  each  year.     All  soil  was  originally  rock. 


food — nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash — in  order  to 
supplement  that  already  present  in  the  soil  has  assumed 
enormous  proportions  in  recent  years.  These  commercial 
fertilizers  are  potential  plant  food,  and  are  intended  to 
assist  in  supplying  the  needs  of  the  growing  plant,  but 
only  in  a  small  way.  They  are  known  as  chemical 
manures,  or  chemical  fertilizers. 


PLANT   FEEDING. 


11 


Manures  or  fertilizers  may  be  so  compounded  as  to 
furnish  the  three  important  elements  in  any  proportion 
desired. 

Carriers  of  nitrogen.  Nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of 
ammonia  and  dried  blood  are  commercial  forms  of  fer- 
tilizing materials  that  supply  nitrogen  only.  The  per  cent 
of  nitrogen  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Material 
Nitrate  of  soda, 
Sulphate  of  ammonia, 
Dried  blood, 


Per  cent  Nitrogen 
16 
20 

14 


27.  How  many  pounds  of  nitrogen  in  a  ton  of  nitrate 
of  soda? 

Process :   2,000  X  -16  =  320 

28.  How  many  ix)unds  of  nitrogen  in  a  ton  of  sul- 
phate of  ammonia  ? 

29.  How  many  in  a  ton  of  dried  blood  ? 

30.  When  you  apply  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  to 
an  acre  of  land,  how  many 
pounds  of  actual  nitrogen  are 
applied  ? 

Process :  100  X  -16  =  16  pounds. 

31.  How  many  pounds  of 
actual  nitrogen  are  applied 
to  the  soil  when  a  mixture  of 
50  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda 
and  50  pounds  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia  is  used  ? 


32.  How  many  pounds  of 
dried  blood  will  he  necessary 
to  increase  the  application  to 
30  pounds? 


With  and  Without  Fertilizer. 
Wheat  was  used  here  as  a  soil- 
ing crop.  The  plot  at  the  left 
made  4.6  tons  to  the  acre,  while 
the  one  at  the  right  having  had 
an  application  of  nitrate  of  soda 
produced   7^    tons. 


12 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


Carriers  of  phosphoric  acid.  Acid  phosphate  is  the 
principal  material  supplying  phosphoric  acid  alone.  It 
ordinarily  carries  14  per  cent  phosphoric  acid. 

33.  How  many  pounds  of  actual  phosphoric  acid  in  a 
ton  of  acid  phosphate? 

34.  Suppose  you  desire  to  apply  35  pounds  of  actual 
phosphoric  acid  to  your  soil,  how  many  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate  will  it  require  ? 

Carriers  of  potash.  Muriate  of  potash,  sulphate  of 
potash,  and  kainit  are  commercial  forms  supplying  potash 
only.  The  per  cent  of  potash  in  each  is  shown  in  the 
table  following: 

Material  Per  cent  of  Potash 
Muriate  of  potash,  50 

Sulphate  of  potash,  48 

Kainit,  12.5 

35.  How  many  pounds  of  actual  potash  in  a  ton  of 
muriate  of  potash?    Sulphate  of  potash?    Kainit? 

36.  Suppose  you  desire  to  apply  a  mixture  of  these 
three  materials  to  your  land  so  as  to  get  30  pounds  of 
actual  potash — ten  pounds  from  each  material — how 
many  pounds  of  each  will  be  necessary  ? 

Carriers  of  more  than  one  kind  of  plant  food.  Lead- 
ing fertilizing  materials  and  per  cent  of  each  element  car- 
ried is  shown  in  the  table  below : 


Material 

Percent 
nitrogen 

Per  cent 

phosphoric 

acid 

Per  cent 
potash 

Ground  bone 

3.0 
S.O 
7.0 
6.0 
8.0 

22.0 

15.0 

2.5 

11.0 

7.0 

1.5 

1.5 

Tankage 

Wood  ashes 

5.0 

PLANT   FEEDING. 


38 


37.  How  many  pounds  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  in  a  ton  of  fertiHzer  made  of  equal  parts  of 
ground  bone,  cottonseed  meal,  tankage,  fish  scrap,  and 
wood  ashes? 

38.  What  is  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  a  ton  mixed 
in  this  way  ? 

39.  Of  phosphoric  acid? 

40.  Of  potash? 


Increasing  the  Potato  Yield. 
Mineral  fertilizers  were   applied,  practically  doubling  the   returns. 

Important  truth.  No  fertilizing  material  is  wholly 
plant  food.  A  large  part  of  every  fertilizer  is  inert  mat- 
ter, known  as  filler.  The  plant  food  elements  are  in  gen- 
eral found  only  in  chemical  or  physical  combination  with 
other  elements  which  are  not  plant  foods.  Muriate  of  pot- 
ash is  the  most  concentrated  of  the  fertilizing  materials ; 
yet  in  one  ton  of  muriate  of  potash  only  1,000  pounds  is 
actual  plant  food.  The  remainder  is  foreign  matter, 
which  is  of  no  valu^  to  the  soil  or  to  the  plant.    One  must 


14 


FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


always  consider  the  amount  of  actual  plant  food  present 
in  a  commercial  fertilizer  and  must  be  familiar  with  the 
percentage  of  each  food  element  contained.  In  order  to 
use  such  materials  wisely  and  economically  one  must 
know  something  of  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  question  and 
of  the  crop  to  be  grown. 

Mixing  fertilizing  materials.  Fertilizing  materials 
may  be  used  singly  or  in  combination.  By  properly  select- 
ing the  materials  a  fertilizer  may  be  made  to  suit  any  soil 
and  any  crop. 

41.  A  ton  of  home-mixed  fertilizer  is  made  of  1,200 
pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  400  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal, 


,     ^.i:;<  Without  NitTO^n/;/;;;;,^;;^^^^^^^  Ration  of  Nltrogro.'  '"'■'■•V''-'-'"i ■-•!;'>•';;  V"   FuU  Ration  of  Nitropn.'. ■;.'•' I ■,'::., 


Changing  the  Timothy  Ration. 
All  three  were  fertilized  alike  with  muriate  of  potash   and  acid  phosphate. 

and  400  pounds  kainit.     What  will  be  the  quantity  of 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  ? 

Solution :  Turning  to  page  12  we  find  that  acid  phosphate  ana- 
lyzes 14  per  cent  phosphoric  acid ;   cottonseed  meal  7  per  cent 
nitrogen,  3.5  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  1.5  per  cent  potash ;  and 
kainit  12^  per  cent  potash. 
Acid  phosphate. 

1,200  X   14  =  168  pounds  phosphoric  acid. 
Cottonseed  meal. 

400  X   07    =  28  pounds  nitrogen, 
400  X   025  =:  10  pounds  phosphoric  acid, 
400  X  .015  =    6  pounds  potash. 
Kainit. 

400  X  .125  =  50  pounds  of  potash. 


PLANT   FEEDING.  15 

We  now  have — 

Phosphoric  acid  Nitrogen  Potash 

In  acid  phosphate 168                       00  0 

In  cottonseed  meal 10                        28  6 

In  kainit 00                        00  50 

178  28  56 

42.     In  a  ton  of  fertilizer  mixed  in  this  way  what  is  the 

percentage  of  each  element  of  plant  food? 

Solution :  To  find  this  percentage  divide  the  amount  of  each 
element  by  the  total  amount  of  the  mixtuie,  and  multiply  by  100. 
The  calculation  is  as  follows : 


Phosphoric  acid,  178 


2,000  X  100  =  8.9%  phosphoric  acid 


Nitrogen,  28  -^  2,000  X  100  =  1.4%  nitrogen 

Potash,  56  ^  2,000  X  100  =  2.8%  potash. 

Note. — This  mixture  would  be  designated  as  a  8.9-1.4-2.8 
mixture. 

43.  How  many  pounds  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  in  a  ton  of  fertilizer,  containing  1,400  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate,  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  200 
pounds  of  cottonseed  meal.  100  pounds  of  dried  blood, 
and  200  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  ? 

44.  What  is  the  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid,  nitro- 
gen and  potash  in  the  above  fertilizer? 

45.  Suppose,  instead  of  using  1,400  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate,  we  use  1,400  pounds  of  ground  bone;  how 
many  pounds  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash 
will  the  ton  of  mixture  contain? 

46.  What  is  the  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid,  nitro- 
gen and  potash  in  a  ton  of  the  mixture? 

Fertilizer  formulae: 

A  Widely  Used  Corn  Fertilizer. 
Acid  phosphate,  875  pounds 

Cottonseed  meal,  950  pounds 

Kainit,  175  pounds 


Total,  3.000  pounds 


16 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


47.  What  percentages  of  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen 
and  potash  are  contained  in  the  above  f  ertihzer  ? 

48.  When  4G0  pounds  of  this  fertiHzer  are  used  per 
acre,  how  many  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen  and 
potash  are  added  to  the  soil? 


oond&  of  grain 

)er  acre  l.( 

)00 

2.C 

00 

3.C 

)00 

4.C 

00 

5.C 

00 

6.0 

1852-1871  <J 

V 

I872-I8&l/ 

3 

I 

IA62-I8&K 

V 

1 

/ 

1892-1901  < 

V 

1 

■  Manured  every  year. 

3  Manured  every  year  until  I871,but  no  manure  «incc  thai  date. 

"DNo  manure  since  1852. 

No  Question  About  Value  of  Manure. 


A  Widely  Used  Cotton  Fertilizer. 

Acid  phosphate,  900  pounds 

Cottonseed  meal,  800  pounds 

Kainit,  300  pounds 

49.  What   percentages   of  phosphoric   acid,  nitrogen 
and  potash  are  contained  in  above  fertilizer? 

50.  When  200  pounds  are  used  per  acre,  how  many 
pounds  of  each  element  are  added  to  the  soil? 


PLANT   FEEDING.  17 


51.     When  500  pounds  are  used  per  acre,  how  many 
pounds  of  each  element  are  added  to  the  soil  ? 

A  Widely  Used  Tobacco  Fertilizer. 
Acid  phosphate,  1,000  pounds 

Dried  blood,  500  pounds 

Nitrate  of  soda,  100  pounds 

Sulphate  of  potash,  400  pounds 


Total,  2,000  pounds 

52.  What  percentages  of  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen, 
and  potash  are  contained  in  above  fertilizer? 

A  Widely  Used  Wheat  Fertilizer. 

Dissolved  bone,  1,200  pounds 

Sulphate  of  ammonia,  500  pounds 

Muriate  of  potash,  300  pounds 

Total,  2,000  pounds 

53.  What  percentages  of  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen, 
and  potash  are  contained  in  this  fertilizer? 

54.  When  200  pounds  are  used  per  acre,  how  many 
pounds  of  potential  plant  food  are  added  to  the  soil  ? 

55.  When  wheat  yields  25  bushels  of  grain  and  two 
tons  of  straw,  a  total  of  94.5  pounds  of  plant  food  is 
removed.  What  proportion  of  this  amount  is  furnished 
when  200  pounds  of  the  above  wheat  fertilizer  is  applied 
to  each  acre? 

Important  truth.  Even  with  heavy  application  of 
fertilizer  only  a  small  part  of  the  plant  food  used  by  the 
crop  is  furnished  by  the  fertilizer.  The  soil  must  always 
be  the  chief  source  of  plant  food  for  any  growing  crop. 
It  is  also  true  that  only  a  part  of  the  fertilizer  is  taken  up 
by  the  crop  immediately  following  its  application. 

Working  from  percentages.  Given  the  percentages 
of  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen,  and  potash  suitable  to  a  crop 


18  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

or  to  a  soil,  to  mix  a  fertilizer  satisfying  the  requirement. 
In  general  this  can  be  done  in  a  great  many  ways. 
Usually,  however,  the  materials  from  which  to  select  are 
limited  in  number  or  are  definitely  specified. 

Let  us  make  a  ton  of  fertilizer  analyzing  8-3-3,  using 
for  the  purpose  acid  phosphate,  sulphate  of  ammonia  and 
kainit. 

Solution :  First  find  the  number  of  pounds  of  each  element  in 
one  ton  of  mixture. 

Phosphoric  acid,  8  per  cent  or  160  pounds  per  ton, 
Nitrogen,  3  per  cent  or     60  pounds  per  ton. 

Potash,  3  per  cent  or     60  pounds  per  ton. 

Acid  phosphate  is  14  per  cent  phosphoric  acid. 
To  get  160  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  we  must  use  160  -^  .14  = 
1,142  pounds  of  acid  phosphate. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  20  per  cent  nitrogen. 
To  get  60  pounds  of  nitrogen  we  must  use  60  -f-  .20  =  300 
pounds  of  sulphate  of  ammonia. 
Kainit,  12.5  per  cent  potash. 

To  get  60  pounds  of  potash  we  must  use  60  -h  .125  =  480 
pounds  of  kainit. 

We  now  have: 

Acid  phosphate,        ^  1,143  pounds 

Sulphate  of  ammonia,  300  pounds 

Kainit,  480  pounds 


1,923  pounds 
Unfurnished,  77  pounds 


Total,  2,000  pounds 

The  remaining  77  pounds  is  filler  and  may  be  supplied  in  fine 
sand,  road  dirt  or  any  similar  material.  If  we  wish  to  make  but 
100  pounds  of  8-3-3  fertilizer,  we  would  take  one-twentieth  part 
of  each  of  these  amounts. 

56.  How  many  pounds  each  of  acid  phosphate,  nitrate 
of  soda,  and  kainit  will  be  needed  to  make  a  ton  of  an 
8-3-3  fertiHzer? 

57.  How  many  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  cottonseed 


PLANT    FEEDING. 


19 


meal  and  kainit  will  be  required  for  a  7-23/2-2^  ferti- 
lizer? 

58.  How  many  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  nitrate  of 
soda,  dried  blood,  and  sulphate  of  potash  will  be  required 

for  Si  6-2y2-2y2  fertilizer? 

Note. — Since  different  quantities  of  materials  may  be  used 
as  carriers,  different  answers  to  these  problems  will  result.  The 
principle  is  an  important  one,  and  should  be  understood  and 
thoroughly  mastered. 

Cost  of  fertilizing  materials.  The  cost  of  a  fertilizer 
depends  upon  its  constituents.  The  cost  of  each  element 
varies  from  year  to  year.    Unless  otherwise  indicated  in 


NITRATE 
OF  SODA 


KAINIT 


ACID 
PHOSPHATE 


3 


PHOSPHOROUS^ 


Plant  Food  in  Bag  of  Fertilizer. 

Not  all  of  the  bag  contents  is  plant   food.     Much  of  it  is  dirt  or  material  of 
no  use  to  plants. 

the  problem  take  nitrogen  as  costing  15  cents  a  pound, 
phosphoric  acid  5  cents,  and  potash  5  cents. 

59.  What  is  the  money  value  of  a  ton  of  fertilizer 
that  analyzes  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  2  per  cent  nitro- 
gen, and  2  per  cent  potash  (8-2-2)  ? 

Solution : 

2,000  X  08  =  160  lb  @  5c  ==  $8.00 
MOO  X  .02  =r  40  lb  @  15c  =  6.00 
3,000  X  .02  =    40  lb  @    5c  =    2.00 


Total, 


$16.09 


20  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

60.  What  is  the  money  value  of  a  fertilizer  that 
analyzes  7-3-3  ? 

61.  What  is  the  money  value  of  a  ton  of  fertilizer 
composed  of  1,600  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  400 
pounds  of  kainit? 

62.  When  composed  of  1,600  pounds  of  acid  phos- 
phate and  400  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  ? 

63.  When  composed  of  1,600  pounds  of  acid  phos- 
phate 200  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  and  200  pounds  of 
kainit  ? 


Fertilizer  Distributor. 

Factory-mixed  fertilizers.  Commercial  fertilizers 
make  up  the  greater  part  of  purchased  chemical  manures. 
They  are  sold  under  hundreds  of  names,  but  are  valuable 
only  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  plant  food  they  con- 
tain. The  farmer,  therefore,  should  be  guided  in  buy- 
ing factory-mixed  goods  by  the  guaranteed  analysis  and 
not  by  any  high-sounding  name  or  brand. 

In  computing  the  relative  values  of  different  fertilizers 
bear  in  mind  that  one  per  cent  means  one  part  in  a  hun- 
dred.   This  is  the  same  as  saying  one  pound  in  a  hundred 


PLANT   FEEDING. 


21 


pounds  or  20  pounds  in  a  ton.  When  a  range  is  given  in 
guaranteed  percentages  make  the  calculations  on  the 
lowest  percentage,  since  in  all  probability  that  most 
nearly  represents  the  actual  composition.  By  "money 
value"  is  here  meant  the  actual  market  cost  of  the  plant 
food  elements  in  the  fertilizer,  not  its  real  value  as 
based  o'n  the  increased  value  of  the  crop  due  to  its  use. 
This  latter  may  be  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  actual 
cost  of  the  fertilizer  whether  mixed  at  home  or  factory 
made.  This  latter  or  real  value  will  depend  upon  the 
degree  in  which  the  percentages  of  the  different  food 
elements  are  suited  to  the  given  soil  and  crop. 


WHEAT 


3  ^ 

CORN  OATS         POTATOES        DAIRY     COTTON 


Seven  of  Our  Leading  Farm  Products. 

When  sold  off  the  farm  just  so  much  plant  food  is  sent  away.  The  relative 
proportions  are  shown  above  and  apply  to  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium 
in  a  ton  of  each  product. 

64.     What  is  the  money  value  of  plant  food  in  a  fer- 
tilizer containing 

Phosphoric  acid  7  to  8  per  cent, 
Nitrogen  1.60  to  2  per  cent, 
Potash  2  to  2.75  per  cent? 
Commercial  value,  $30. 

Solution :    When  the  percentages  are  multiplied  by  20  we  ob- 
tain the  number  of  pounds  in  a  ton,  and  when  this  is  multiplied 


22  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

by  the  value  per  pound  we  obtain  the  value  on  the  basis  of  a  ton. 

This  is  shown  below: 
Nitrogen,  1.6  X  20  =    32  ft  32  lb  @  15c  =  $4.8:; 

Phosphoric   acid,  7  x  20  =  140  tb  140  tb  @    5c  =  $7.00 

Potash,  2X20=    40  tb  40  tb  @    5c  =  $2.00 


Value  of  plant  food,  $13.80 

In  this  case  $13.80  worth  of  plant  food  costs  $30. 

65.  What  is  the  value  of  plant  food  in  a  ton  of  fac- 
tory-mixed fertilizer  containing  9  per  cent  of  phosphoric 
acid,  2  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  2  per  cent  of  potash? 

66.  When  a  ton  of  such  fertilizer  sells  for  $28,  what 
is  the  money  difference  between  its  selling  price  to  the 
farmer  and  the  money  value  of  the  plant  food  in  it? 

67.  What  is  the  value  of  plant  food  in  a  ton  of  ferti- 
lizer that  contains  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  2  per  cent 
nitrogen,  and  6  per  cent  potash? 

68.  In  a  ton  that  contains  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid, 
6  per  cent  nitrogen,  and  2  per  cent  potash? 

69.  The  value  of  plant  food  in  a  ton  of  fertilizer  is 
$18.  It  analyzes  7  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  3  per  cent 
nitrogen.     What  per  cent  of  this  fertilizer  is  potash? 

70.  Two  commercial  fertilizers  are  sold  on  the  market. 
No.  1  analyzes  5  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  3  per  cent 

nitrogen,  and  1^  per  cent  potash  and  sells  for  $26  a  ton ; 
No.  2  analyzes  8%  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  1  per 
cent  of  nitrogen,  and  2  per  cent  of  potash  and  sells  for 
$25  a  ton.  In  which  fertilizer  do  you  secure  the  greater 
amount  of  plant  food?    The  better  value? 

71.  If  the  No.  1  fertilizer  rightly  sells  for  $26  a  ton, 
on  the  same  basis  of  plant  food  value,  what  can  the 
farmer  afford  to  pay  for  No.  2? 

Note. — This  difference  arises  from  cost  of  manufacture, 
agent's  profits,  and  profits  to  manufacturer.  When  fertilizers 
are  mixed  at  home  much  of  this  difference  can  be  saved. 


PLANT  FEEDING.  23 

72.  A  fertilizer  containing  7  per  cent  phosphoric  acid, 
2  per  cent  nitrogen,  and  2  per  cent  potash  sells  for  $25 
a  ton.  How  much  phosphoric  acid  should  a  ton  of  a  dif- 
ferent fertilizer  contain,  which  is  also  sold  at  $25,  pro- 
vided it  must  be  2  per  cent  nitrogen  and  1  per  cent 
potash  ? 

Phosphorus  and  phosphoric  acid.  Phosphoric  acid 
means  a  compound  whose  composition  is  expressed  by 
the  symbol  Ps  Os  and  contains  43.79  per  cent  of  phos- 
phorus. To  change  phosphoric  acid  into  terms  of  phos- 
phorus it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  multiply  the  number 
representing  phosphoric  acid  by  0.437,  since  only  43.7 
per  cent  phosphoric  acid  is  phosphorus. 

On  many  accounts  it  would  be  preferable  to  use  the  term  phosphorus  in- 
stead of  phosphoric  acid.  The  present  use  is  so  firmly  established  that 
many  practical  difficulties  would  be  encountered  in  making  the  change. 

Potash  and  potassium.  Potash  is  almost  universally 
used  in  referring  to  potassium  compounds.  Strictly 
speaking,  potash  means  potassium  oxide  (K2O).  Potas- 
sium carbonate  (K2  CO3)  or  carbonate  of  potash,  con- 
tains 56.6  per  cent  of  potassium  which  is  equivalent  to 
68  per  cent  of  potash  (K2O).  Potassium  chloride 
(KCl)  contains  52.7  per  cent  of  potassium,  which  is 
equivalent  to  63.5  per  cent  of  potash.  Potassium  sul- 
phate (K2  SO*)  contains  45  per  cent  of  potassium, 
which  is  equivalent  to  54  per  cent  of  potash.  Potassium 
nitrate  (KNO3)  contains  38.6  per  cent  of  potassium, 
which  is  equivalent  to  46.6  per  cent  of  potash. 

Ammonia  and  nitrogen.  Ammonia  is  often  substi- 
tuted for  nitrogen  in  giving  the  analysis  of  a  fertilizer. 
This  is  done  simply  to  increase  the  size  of  the  figure  of 
the  nitrogen  content.  Nitrogen  is  the  food  element,  not 
ammonia,  hence  ammonia  percentage  w^hen  used  must 
always  be  changed  into  nitrogen  percentage.  This  may 
be  done  by  multiplying  the  ammonia  percentage  by  .82, 
since  ammonia  is  82%  nitrogen. 


24 


FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


73.  What  is  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  a  fertilizer 
that  contains  2  per  cent  of  ammonia  ? 

Solution :   2  X  -824  =  1.6 
Note. — Ammonia  is  14-17  nitrogen,  or  expressed  in  decimals 
is  .824. 

74.  What  is  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  a  fertilizer 
that  analyzes  3  per  cent  ammonia? 

75.  A  fertilizer  contains  2.5  pounds  nitrogen  in  every 
hundred.    What  is  the  percentage  of  ammonia  ? 


Manure  Spreader  at  Work. 
When  the  spreader  is  used  manure  is  applied  evenly  and  uniformly, 
the  cost  of  application   is  a  minimum. 


Then,  too. 


76.  In  a  ton  of  a  certain  fertilizer  there  are  40  pounds 
of  nitrogen.  If  this  were  to  be  expressed  in  ammonia, 
how  many  pounds  would  there  be? 

77.  If  another  fertilizer  contains  40  pounds  of  am- 
monia, how  many  pounds  of  nitrogen  would  it  contain? 

78.  How  many  pounds  of  nitrogen  in  a  ton  of  a  fer- 
tilizer that  analyzes  3  per  cent  ammonia? 


PLANT   FEEDING.  25 

Analyses  on  tags  and  sacks.  In  purchasing  a  ferti- 
lizer it  is  always  necessary  to  interpret  correctly  state- 
ments and  calculations,  otherwise  the  purchaser  may  be 
deceived  as  to  its  real  plant  food  value.  Remember  that 
available  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen,  and  potassium  are 
wanted,  not  high-sounding  names  or  elaborate  analyses. 

Take  the  following  analysis : 

Fertilizer  Analysis. 

Per  cent 

Ammonia,  3  to     4 

Phosphoric  acid  (soluble),  10  to  12 

Phosphoric  acid  (insoluble),  1  to    2 

Total  phosphoric  acid,  11  to  14 

Potash   (actual),  1.6S  to     2.16 

Sulphate  of  potash,  3  to    4 

This  reduced  to  its  true  meaning  reads  as  follows : 

Nitrogen,  2.47 

Phosphoric  acid,  10,0 

Potash,  1.62 

79.  A  special  potato  fertilizer  sells  for  $35  per  ton. 
It  analyzes  as  follows: 

Per  cent 

Moisture,  10  to  15 

Ammonia,  2  to  2.25 

Available  phosphoric  acid,  8  to  9 

Equivalent  to  bone  phosphate  of  lime,  20.74  to  24.01 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  2.25  to  2 

Potash,  8  to  8.50 

Equivalent  to  sulphate,  11.80  to  13.72 

What  is  the  true  meaning  and  what  is  the  plant  food 
value  in  a  ton? 

Important  truth.  In  buying  fertilizers  reduce  all  fer- 
tilizers to  terms  of  nitrogen,  available  or  soluble  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash.  Pay  no  attention  to  others,  for 
they  are  of  no  value  and  are  deceptive.  Use  only  the 
lowest  percentage  for  each  element,  as  it  more  nearly 
represents  the  truth. 


26 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


Remember.  Every  farmer  should  study  the  nature  of 
soil  he  is  farming  and  the  needs  of  the  crop  he  is  grow- 
ing. He  owes  it  to  himself  and  to  humanity  to  treat  the 
soil  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  grow  richer  and  richer 
rather  than  poorer  and  poorer. 

What  Corn  Takes  From  the  Soil. 


The  following  problems  are  intended  to  serve  as  a  re- 
view of  the  entire  subject  of  plant  feeding,  and  to  show 
what  an  enormous  draft  corn,  our  great  king  crop,  makes 


NITROGEN 

PMOSPmOROUS 

^-L 

T 

POTASSIUM 

1  1  1  1     1 

Plant  Food  in  Corn. 

Relative  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium  required  by  an  average 

corn  crop. 

each  year  on  the  plant  food  stored  in  the  soil.  A  similar 
study  could  be  made  with  wheat,  cotton,  hay  or  the  lead- 
ing crop  of  any  section.  The  principles  involved  are  the 
same  regardless  of  the  crop,  season,  or  section.  As  a 
rule,  the  soil  elements  required  for  the  growth  of  plants 
are  abundantly  present  in  the  soil  except  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus and  potassium.  These  are  the  principal  elements 
with  which  the  farmer  is  concerned  in  feeding  his  crops. 
Therefore,  fertilizing  the  land,  or  feeding  the  crop,  calls 
for  a  study  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium 
taken  up  by  the  crop  and  thus  removed  from  the  soil. 


PLANT    FEEDING.  27 

What  corn  and  stover  contain.  Dry  corn  grain,  or 
kernels  when  removed  from  the  cob,  contains  of  water 
about  10%,  of  nitrogen  1.9%,  of  phosphoric  acid  0.7%, 
of  potash  0.4%.  This  means  that  in  100  pounds  of  crib- 
cured  shelled  corn  of  average  quality,  there  are  of  water 
10  pounds,  nitrogen  1.9  pounds,  phosphoric  acid  0.7  of 
one  pound,  potash  0.4  of  one  pound.  The  corn  stalks 
when  thoroughly  field-cured,  or  dried  as  hay,  contain  of 
water  about  40%,  nitrogen  1%,  phosphoric  acid  0.3%, 
potash  1.4%.  This  means  that  100  pounds  of  field- 
cured  corn  fodder  of  good  average  quality  contain  of 
water  40  pounds,  nitrogen  1  pound,  phosphoric  acid  0.3 
of  one  pound,  potash  1.4  pounds. 

Average  yield  an  acre.  The  average  yield  of  corn 
throughout  the  United  States,  one  year  with  another, 
is  about  25  bushels  to  the  acre.  This  average  crop  pro- 
duces about  two  tons  (.4,000  pounds)  an  acre  of  field- 
cured  corn  fodder.  Therefore,  to  produce  one  bushel  of 
corn  requires  the  growth  of.  stalks,  and  leaves  which, 
when  cut  and  sundried  in  the  field,  weigh  160  pounds. 
As  corn  weighs  56  pounds  to  the  bushel,  one  pound  of 
corn  is  produced  by  2.86  pounds  of  fodder  on  the  aver- 
age. These  proportions  vary  widely,  and  so  does  the 
composition  of  grain  and  fodder,  but  the  above  are  fair 
averages.  No  account  is  here  taken  of  the  cobs  which 
are  quite  an  item. 

Questions. 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  nitrogen  are  removed  in  100 
pounds  of  shelled  corn,  how  many  pounds  of  phosphoric 
acid,  how  many  pounds  of  potash,  and  what  is  the  total 
weight  of  these  three  elements  in  100  pounds  of  corn  ? 

2.  Determine  the  same  in  one  bushel  (56  pounds)  of 
corn. 


28  FARM  ARITHMETIC. 

3.  Determine  the  same  in  one  ton  (2,000  pounds)  of 
shelled  corn. 

4.  When  the  corn  crop  yields  25  bushels  an  acre  of 
shelled  corn,  how  many  pounds  of  nitrogen  are  required 
from  one  acre  of  soil  by  the  grain?  How  many  of  phos- 
phoric acid?  How  many  of  potash?  What  is  the  total 
weight  of  all  three  elements  thus  removed? 

5.  When  an  acre  yielding  25  bushels  of  corn  in  the 
grain  produces  an  average  of  4,000  pounds  (two  tons) 
of  field-cured  corn  stover,  how  many  pounds  of  nitrogen 


Homemade  Tool  for  Liming  the  Land. 

are  removed  from  the  soil  in  the  stover;  that  is,  by  the 
stalks  exclusive  of  the  grain  and  cob?  How  many  of 
phosphoric  acid?  How  many  of  potash?  How  many 
pounds  of  all  three  of  these  elements  are  removed  by  such 
a  crop  of  stalks  ? 

6.  What  is  the  total  amount  of  each  of  the  three  ele- 
ments removed  from  one  acre  of  soil  by  such  a  crop  of 
both  grain  and  stalks? 

Answers  to  Above  Questions. 

(1)  In  100  pounds  of  shelled  corn  of  average  quality, 
there  are  of  nitrogen  1.9  pounds  or  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phoric acid  0.7  pound  or  per  cent,  of  potash  0.4  pound  or 
ner  cent. 


PLANT    FEEDING. 


29 


(2)  One  bushel  of  56  pounds  therefore  contains 
56-100  of  the  above  quantities,  which  is  of  nitrogen 
1.06  pounds,  of  phosphoric  acid  0.4  pounds,  of  potash 
0.2  pounds,  or  a  total  1.66  pounds  of  these  elements. 

(3)  One  ton  of  shelled  corn  contains  20  times  the 
quantity  in  100  pounds,  or  a  total  of  nitrogen  38  pounds, 
of  phosphoric  acid  14  pounds,  of  potash  8  pounds. 

(4)  A  crop  of  25  bushels  of  shelled  corn  per  acre  con- 
tains of  nitrogen  26.5  pounds,  phosphoric  acid  10  pounds, 
potash  5  pounds,  or  a  total  'weight  of  these  three 
elements  of  41.5  pounds. 


Why  Is  the  Difference  So  Great.* 

The  plot  at  the  right  has  been  in  corn  for  many  years,  while  at  the  left  the 
corn  was  rotated  with  clover  and  oats.  This  shows  that  crop  rotation  and 
legume  crops  improve  the  land. 

(5)  Two  tons  of  field-cured  corn  stover  contain  of 
nitrogen  40  pounds,  phosphoric  acid  12  pounds,  potash 
56  pounds,  a  total  of  108  pounds. 

(6)  The  25  bushels  of  corn  and  two  tons  of  stover 
from  one  acre  therefore  contain  of  nitrogen  66.5  pounds. 


30  FARM  ARITHMETIC. 

of  phosphoric  acid  22  pounds,  of  potash  61  pounds,  or 
an  aggregate  of  149.5  pounds  of  the  three. 

Plant  Food  Removed.  A  certain  farm  this  year  will 
harvest  10  acres  of  corn  yielding  an  average  of  32j^ 
bushels  of  shelled  corn  to  the  acre.  Estimate  that  there 
are  2.86  pounds  of  stover  for  each  pound  of  corn  to  get 
the  average  yield  of  stover  an  acre.  The  average  corn 
crop  for  the  whole  United  States  is  computed  by  the 
Orange  Judd  crop  reporting  bureau  of  the  American 
Agriculturist  as  averaging  30  bushels  an  acre  on  100 
million  acres,  making  a  total  of  three  billion  bushels. 

You  will  learn  by  answering  the  questions  below  how 
much  plant  food  is  taken  away  from  the  farm,  if  either 
the  corn  or  the  stover  is  sold.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
grain  or  the  stover  is  fed  on  the  farm,  and  the  manure 
therefrom  returned  to  the  soil,  only  a  small  part  of  the 
plant  food  in  the  crop  is  taken  away  from  the  land.  This 
is  one  reason  why  it  is  better  to  feed  a  crop  on  the  farm 
and  sell  the  resulting  meat,  wool,  milk,  butter  or  cheese, 
than  to  sell  off  the  whole  crop. 

Questions. 

1.  Determine  the  number  of  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  the  shelled  corn,  in  the 
stover,  and  in  both  together  for  the  10  acres  above  re- 
ferred to. 

2.  What  was  the  total  weight  of  the  United  States 
crop  of  corn  stover  in  1912  if  all  the  stalks  on  every 
acre  were  properly  field-cured  and  taken  care  of? 

3.  Then  calculate  the  number  of  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  in  the  grain,  and  in  the 
stover,  and  add  both  quantities  together  to  get  the  total 
amount  of  plant  food  consumed  by  a  three  billion  bushel 
corn  crop. 


PLANT     FEEDING. 


31 


4.  Now  state  in  tons  the  total  three  billion  bushel 
crop  of  corn  and  of  corn  stover,  and  the  tons  of  plant  food 
contained  in  each.  How  many  freight  cars,  each  holding 
20  tons,  will  be  required  to  haul  the  corn  crop?  Of  such 
a  train  how  many  cars  would  be  required  for  the  total 
plant  food  in  the  corn,  were  it  all  separated  from  the 
grain  ? 

5.  Corn  stover  is  so  bulky  that  10  tons  would  make 
an  average  carload.  How  many  cars  would  be  required 
to  haul  this  year's  crop  of  corn  stover,  and  in  this  train 
how  many  cars  would  be  filled  with  the  plant  food  in  the 
stover,  if  it  all  could  be  separated  from  the  stover? 


Two  Kinds  of  Farming. 

Grain  farming  forces  plant  food  from  the  soil  but  the  dairy  cow  maintains  the 
fertility  of  the  land. 

Answers  to  Above  Questions.  ^ 

1.  From  the  10-acre  piece  of  corn  the  yield  is  325 
bushels  of  shelled  corn,  containing  of  nitrogen  344 
pounds,  of  phosphoric  acid  130  pounds,  of  potash  65 
pounds.  The  amount  of  stover  produced  is  52,052 
pounds,  containing  of  nitrogen  520+  pounds,  of  phos- 
phoric acid  156+  pounds,  of  potash  728+  pounds.  Totals 
of  corn  and  stover  together,  nitrogen  864  pounds,  phos- 
phoric acid  286  pounds,  potash  793  pounds. 

2.  The  total  weight  of  an  average  American  crop  of 
corn  stover  is  480,500,000,000  pounds. 


32 


FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


3.  In  the  grain  of  the  entire  crop  of  corn  there  are  of 
nitrogen  3,180,000,000  pounds ;  of  phosphoric  acid,  1,200,- 
000,000  pounds;  of  potash  600,000,000  pounds;  in  the 
stalks,  of  nitrogen  4,805,000,000  pounds;  of  phosphoric 
acid  1,441,500,000  pounds ;  of  potash  6,727,000,000.  The 
total  amount  of  plant  food  consumed  is  17,953,500,000 
pounds. 

4.  In  the  total  United  States  corn  crop  the  grain  will 
weigh  84,000,000  tons,  the  fodder  240,250,000  tons.  The 
grain  will  contain  2,490,000  tons  of  plant  food,  and  the 


Feeding  Cattle  in  the  Field. 
Hay  and  grain  are  placed  in  racks  and  troughs  and  the  steers  fe»d  at  will. 


stover  6,486,750  tons ;  cars,  20  tons  each,  required  for  the 
grain,  4,200,000;  for  the  plant  food  contained  in  the 
grain,  122,250. 

5.  For  the  corn  stover  24,025,000  cars  holding  10  tons 
each  will  be  required,  and  for  the  plant  food  in  it 
324,337.5  cars  holding  20  tons  each. 


PLANT    FEEDING.  33 

Live  Stock  and  the  Soil.  Having  solved  these  prob- 
lems, you  have  discovered  what  a  large  amount  of 
expensive  plant  food  is  taken  from  the  soil  each  year  by 
the  corn  crop.  This  must  be  replaced  in  some  way  or  the 
land  will  lose  its  fertility  and  become  *'worn  out."  If  the 
corn  is  sold  each  year,  a  large  amount  of  fertilizer  must 
be  bought.  However,  suppose  the  farmer  keeps  the  corn 
he  raises  and  feeds  it  to  his  stock.  Let  us  see  what  the 
results  are  then.  The  farmer  may  keep  cows  and  sell 
the  butter,  keeping  the  skim  milk  to  feed  calves  and  to 
fatten  hogs.  When  butter  is  sold  very  little  of  the  ele- 
ments of  the  plant  food  that  we  have  talked  about — nitro- 
gen, phosphorus  and  potassium — is  removed.  The  cows 
can  live  upon  what  is  raised  on  the  farm,  and  most  of  the 
elements  of  plant  food  in  the  food  consumed  by  the  ani- 
mals are  returned  to  the  soil  in  the  manure.  Butter  con- 
tains only  0.125%  of  nitrogen,  0.188%  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  0.031%  of  potash. 

Let  us  suppose,  also,  that  a  number  of  hogs  are  kept. 
They  can  be  fed  when  young  upon  the  skim  milk  and 
fattened  with  some  of  the  corn  that  is  grown  on  the 
farm.  With  the  hogs,  as  with  the  cows,  a  large  part  of 
the  nitrogen  and  other  elements  is  returned  to  the 
soil  in  the  manure.  The  carcass  of  the  hog  averages 
about  2%  nitrogen,  8.1%  phosphoric  acid,  and  0.16% 
potash. 

Using  the  percentages  given  above,  work  out  the  fol- 
lowing problems,  comparing  with  the  results  you  obtained 
on  the  corn  problems.  Which  is  the  more  economical 
method  of  farming — to  sell  the  corn  or  to  feed  it,  selling 
only  the  animal  products? 

Questions. 
1.     How  many  ounces  of  nitrogen  are  contained  in  a 
pound  of  butter?    How  many  ounces  of  phosphoric  acid? 
Of  potash? 


34  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

2.  How  many  pounds  each  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  are  removed  from  the  farm  when  a  ton 
of  butter  is  sold? 

3.  How  much  butter  was  sold  from  your  place  last 
year,  and  how  many  pounds  or  ounces  of  the  elements 
of  plant  food  were  contained  in  it? 

4.  If  a  farmer  sells  20  hogs  averaging  150  pounds 
each,  how  many  pounds  of  nitrogen  are  taken  away  with 
them?  How  many  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid?  Of 
potash  ? 

5.  How  many  hogs  were  killed  on  your  farm  last 
year,  or  sold  from  it,  and  what  was  the  total  weight  of 
nitrogen  in  all  of  them  together?  Of  phosphoric  acid? 
Of  potash? 

Answers  to  Above  Questions. 

1.  In  one  pound  of  butter  there  is  0.02  of  an  ounce  of 
nitrogen,  0.03  of  an  ounce  of  phosphoric  acid,  0.005  of 
an  ounce  of  potash. 

2.  In  one  ton  of  butter  there  are  removed  of  nitrogen, 
2.5  pounds;  of  phosphoric  acid,  3.75  pounds;  of  potash, 
0.6  pounds. 

4.  With  the  20  hogs  are  sold  of  nitrogen  60  pounds, 
of  phosphoric  acid  244  pounds,  of  potash  4.7  pounds. 

The  answers  to  these  questions  show  how  much  less 
loss  in  fertility  there  is  when  the  corn,  or  at  least  a 
part  of  it,  raised  on  the  farm,  is  fed  to  animals  at  home. 
If  the  grain  is  all  sold  the  needed  elements  of  plant 
food  must,  of  course,  be  bought  in  the  form  of  com- 
mercial fertilizer.  Let  us  see  how  much  this  amounts  to 
in  dollars  and  cents. 

The  cost  of  the  three  principal  elements  of  plant  food 
varies  considerably  because  there  is  such  a  large  number 


PLANT    FEEDING.  35 

of  brands  of  commercial  fertilizers.  The  average  cost 
of  each  is,  for  nitrogen  15  to  20  cents  a  pound,  for  phos- 
phoric acid  5  cents  a  pound,  and  for  potash  4  cents  a 
pound.  The  cost  of  nitrogen  is  steadily  rising.  But  let 
us  assume  it  to  be  20  cents  a  pound.  The  latest  tests  of 
the   agricultural   college   experiment   stations    show   that 


Two  Crops  at  the  Same  Time. 

Corn  and  cowpeas  are  here  growing.     The  cowpeas  were  plowed  under  after 
the  corn  was  harvested,  to  add  nitrogen  and  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil. 

nitrogen  is  today  costing  the  farmers  close  to  20  cents  a 
pound  when  bought  in  fertilizers.  Where  mixed  farm- 
ing is  practiced  the  corn  stalks  can  all  be  used  for  fodder 
and  for  bedding.  The  stover  from  an  acre  of  corn  is 
worth  almost  as  much  as  the  hay  from  an  acre  of  timothy 
or  clover. 

Questions. 

1.     What  is  the  value  of  the  corn  raised  on  your  farm 


36  FARM  ARITHMETIC. 

this  year  at  one  cent  a  pound,  or  56  cents  a  bushel.  Of 
the  total  (estimated)  crop  in  the  United  States  (3  billion 
bushels)  ?  Of  a  10-acre  piece  which  yields  an  average 
of  32^  bushels  per  acre? 

2.  Figuring  the  cost  per  pound  as  stated  above,  how 
much  would  it  cost  to  buy  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the 
10-acre  piece?  Take  both  the  grain  and  stover  into  con- 
sideration, estimating  2.86  pounds  of  stover  to  each 
pound  of  grain.  What  is  the  value  of  the  phosphoric 
acid  taken  from  the  10-acre  piece?  Of  the  potash?  Of 
the  three  together?  Compare  this  with  the  value  of  the 
grain. 

3.  Find  the  cost  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  phosphoric 
acid,  of  the  potash,  and  of  all  together  in  the  total  corn 
crop  of  the  United  States  and  of  your  own  farm. 

Answers  to  Above  Questions. 

1.  The  value  of  the  total  United  States  crop  of  3,000,- 
000,000  bushels  of  corn  at  56  cents  per  bushel  is  $1,680,- 
000,000.  The  value  of  325  bushels  raised  on  10  acres  is 
$182. 

2.  The  nitrogen  in  the  grain  and  stalks  together  at  20 
cents  a  pound  would  cost  $172.90,  the  phosphoric  acid 
at  5  cents  a  pound  14.30,  the  potash  at  4  cents  a  pound, 
$31.72;  total,  218.92.  Now,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  not 
all  of  this  has  to  be  bought,  for  corn  is  able  to  get  most 
of  its  food  from  the  soil. 

3.  Value  of  the  elements  in  the  big  total  crop  of  corn 
in  the  United  States,  nitrogen  $1,597,000,000,  phosphoric 
acid,  $132,075,000;  potash,  $293,080,000;  total,  $2,022,- 
080,000. 

The  Value  of  Corn  Stover.  The  stover  produced  on 
an  acre  of  corn  is  worth  about  as  much  as  the  hay  from 


PLANT   FEEDING. 


37 


an  acre,  provided  the  stover  is  given  the  same  care  in 
curing.  The  yield  of  corn  stover  averages  about  two  tons 
(4,000  pounds)  an  acre. 

What  is  the  total  yield  of  field-cured  corn  fodder  on 
your  farm  this  year,  and  what  is  its  value  at  $10  a  ton? 
If  you  cannot  determine  the  exact  weight  of  the  cured 
corn  stalks,  compute  it  as  closely  as  you  can. 

Now,  the  total  weight  of  corn  stover  produced  in  the 
United  States  this  year  is  480,500,000,000  pounds.     Not 


Crimson  Clover  Ready  for  Cutting. 

Every  soil  is  made  better  by  having  a  legume  crop  grow  in   it.     Crimson,  or 
scarlet  clover,  is  always  prized  in  those  sections  to  which  it  is  adapted. 

all  of  this  is  saved,  and  some  of  it  is  not  properly  taken 
care  of.  In  figuring  out  the  answers  to  the  questions 
below  remember  that  100,000,000  acres  of  corn  were 
planted  in  the  country  this  year. 

Questions. 

1.  What  is  the  value  of  the  corn  stover  in  the  United 
States  this  year  at  $10  a  ton,  assuming  that  it  is  all  prop- 
erly harvested  and  taken  car^  of  ? 


38  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

2.  What  is  its  value  an  acre  ? 

3.  How  much  does  the  waste  amount  to  in  dollars  if 
half  the  stover  is  lost  through  poor  methods  of  handling 
it,  or  through  failure  to  use  it  ? 

4.  What  is  the  total  value  of  the  grain  and  stover  to- 
gether in  the  total  United  States  corn  crop  ? 

5.  What  is  the  value  of  the  corn,  grain,  and  stover 
together  raised  in  your  vicinity  this  year?  Estimate  the 
acreage  and  yield  per  acre  in  your  county  or  township 
and  base  your  figures  on  the  cash  values  at  the  present 
day. 

Answers  to  Above  Questions. 

1.  The  value  of  the  corn  stover  grown  in  the  United 
States  this  year  at  $10  per  ton  is  approximately  $2,402,- 
500,000. 

2.  This  gives  a  value  per  acre  of  $24,  +. 

3.  If  half  the  corn  stover  is  wasted,  it  amounts  to  a 
loss  of  $1,200,000,000  in  the  whole  country. 

4.  Total  value  of  the  United  States  corn  crop,  grain 
and  stover  together,  $4,082,000,000. 

Throughout  the  great  corn-growing  belt  in  the  middle 
western  states  thousands  of  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs  are 
fattened.  The  corn  thus  goes  to  market  *'on  the  hoof," 
as  is  sometimes  said.  The  saving  in  transportation 
charges  is  very  great.  How  much  more  economical  it  is 
for  the  farmer  to  practice  mixed  farming  and  thus  get 
the  greater  value  out  of  the  corn,  has  been  well  illus- 
trated by  these  problems. 

Fortunately,  also,  on  many  farms  where  corn  growing 
is  not  the  principal  business,  due  attention  is  given  to  this 


PLANT   FEEDING.  39 

most  important  cereal,  and  a  wise  system  of  farm  man- 
agement provides  for  the  marketing  of  animal  products 
rather  than  grain  products. 

The  value  of  the  manure  is  no  slight  item.  Let  us  see 
what  it  amounts  to  in  dollars  and  cents.  Barnyard 
manure  varies  greatly  in  composition,  as  the  valuable  ele- 
ments of  plant  food  are  easily  lost  unless  proper  care  is 


On  Most  Farms  Hogs  Have  a  Place. 

They  furnish  the  home-meat  supply  and  add  many  dollars  to  the  farm  re- 
ceipts. They  have  paid  the  expenses  of  many  boys  through  college  and  paid 
off  thousands  of  farm  mortgages. 

taken.    It  contains  on  the  average  about  0.5%  of  nitro- 
gen, 0.3%  phosphoric  acid  and  0.4%  of  potash. 

Questions. 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  nitrogen  are  contained  in  a 
load  of  barnyard  manure  weighing  one  ton  ?  How  many 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid?     Of  potash? 

2.  How  much  are  each  of  these  elements  in  a  ton  of 
manure  worth  on  the  basis  of  nitrogen  at  20  cents  a 


40  FARM  AR,ITHMETIC. 

pound,  phosphoric  acid  5  cents  a  pound,  and  potash  4 
cents  a  pound  ?  What  is  the  total  value  of  the  plant  food 
contained  in  a  ton  of  manure? 

3.  If  a  farmer  puts  five  loads  of  manure  on  an  acre, 
how  many  pounds  of  plant  food  is  he  returning  to  the 
land?  How  many  pounds  of  each  of  the  elements?  How 
do  the  amounts  correspond  with  the  number  of  pounds 
of  plant  food  taken  from  the  soil  by  an  acre  of  corn? 
(See  the  answers  to  questions  on  page  29.)  Can  corn 
get  nitrogen  from  any  other  source  than  the  manure  or 
fertihzer  that  has  been  added  to  the  soil? 

Answers  to  Above  Questions. 

1.  A  ton  of  average  barnyard  manure  contains  of 
nitrogen  10  pounds,  of  phosphoric  acid  6  pounds,  of 
potash  8  pounds ;  total  24  pounds. 

2.  Nitrogen  $2,  phosphoric  acid  30  cents,  potash  32 
cents;  total,  $2.62. 

3.  Five  loads  of  manure,  weighing  a  ton  each  and  of 
average  quality,  contain  120  pounds  of  available  plant 
food,  consisting  of  nitrogen  50  pounds,  of  phosphoric 
acid  30  pounds,  of  potash  40  pounds.  This  is  about  the 
same  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  that  is  taken 
from  the  soil  by  the  grain  and  stalks  of  a  crop  of  corn 
yielding  25  bushels  and  two  tons  of  stalks  per  acre. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ANIMAL  FEEDING. 

Source  of  food.  All  animals  depend  directly  or  in- 
directly upon  plants  for  their  food.  To  properly  feed 
domestic  animals  it  is  necessary  to  know  their  needs  and 
the  degree  in  which  each  available  food  will  supply  these 
needs.  The  composition  of  a  given  food  may  be  stated 
in  various  ways.  For  the  purpose  of  estimating  its  food 
value  we  should  know  its  analysis  in  terms  of  the  follow- 
ing substances :  (1)  Water,  (2)  ash,  (3)  protein,  (4) 
crude  fiber,  (5)  starch  and  sugar  and  (6)  oil  or  fat. 
Starch  and  sugar  are  usually  included  in  any  analysis  un- 
der the  name  nitrogen-free  extract.  Sugar,  starch  and 
fiber  are  together  known  as  carbohydrates. 

Wa-tci 


Soil 

Relative  amounts  of  the  weight  of  green  plants  which  are  obtained  from  water, 
air  and  soil. 

What  plants  contain.     Plants  contain  in  different  de- 
grees each  of  these  six  more  or  less  complex  substances. 
Fresh  pasture  grass  contains : 


Per  cent 

Water, 

75.3 

Ash, 

2.5 

Protein, 

4.0 

Crude  fiber, 

5.9 

Nitrogen-free  extract, 

11.4 

Fat, 

0.9 

Total,  100.0 

41 


42  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

80.  In  a  ton  of  such  grass  how  many  pounds  of  each 
substance  ? 

81.  Clover  hay  from  the  mow  contains  6.2  per  cent  of 
ash,  12.3  per  cent  protein,  24.8  per  cent  of  crude  fiber, 
38.1  per  cent  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  3.3  per  cent 
of  fat.  What  is  the  percentage  of  water?  How  many 
pounds  of  water  in  a  ton  of  such  hay  ? 

82.  In  a  ton  of  corn  there  are  592  pounds  of  water, 
ash,  protein,  crude  fiber,  and  fat.  What  is  the  percentage 
of  nitrogen-free  extract? 


1  Acre 

Cowpea 
Hay 


^hi  Acres 
Timothy    Hay 


Increasing  the  Farm  Protein  Supply. 
The  two  fields  will  produce  the  same  amount  of  protein. 

83.  When  corn  produces  40  bushels  per  acre,  how 
many  pounds  of  nitrogen-free  extract  are  contained 
therein  ? 

84.  The  percentage  of  protein  in  cowpea  hay  is  16.6 ; 
in  timothy  hay  5.9.  What  is  the  difference  in  number  of 
pounds  of  protein  produced  when  cowpeas  yield  2.1  tons 
and  timothy  1.3  tons  per  acre? 

Digestible  nutrients  in  feeding  stuff.  Only  a  part 
of  what  is  eaten  is  digested  and  assimilated.  The  per- 
centage of  a  given  food  that  is  digested  is  known  as  its 
coefficient  of  digestibility.  To  know  approximately  the 
amount  of  a  given  ration  that  is  digestible,  it  is  necessary 
to  make  use  of  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  for  each 
constituent  in  it.  These  coefficients  have  been  de- 
termined by  experiment. 


ANIMAL    FEEDING. 


43 


85.  In  100  pounds  of  wheat  bran  there  are  15.4 
pounds  of  protein;  79  (coefficient  of  digestibility)  per 
cent  of  which,  when  eaten,  is  digested.  How  many 
pounds  of  protein  are  digested? 

15.4  X  .79  =  12.17 

86.  The  composition  and  coefficients  of  digestibility  of 
corn  stover  are  as  follows : 


Digestibility 

OF 

Corn  Stover. 

Nutrient 

Per  cent 
composition 

Coefficient 
digestibility 

Protein 

3.8 
19.7 
31.5 

1.1 

45.5 

Crude  fiber 

67.0 

Nitrogen-free  extract    (starch) 

61.0 

Fat 

62.0 

How  many  pounds  each  of  digestible  protein,  carbo- 
hydrates (fiber  and  starch),  and  fat  in  100  pounds? 

87.  In  100  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal  there  are  42.3 
pounds  of  protein;  of  this  37.2  are  digested.     What  is 

the  coefficient  of  digestibility  ? 

88.  The  number  of  pounds  of  digestible  protein  in  a 
ton  of  clover  hay  is  136.  When  clover  hay  contains  12.3 
per  cent  of  protein,  what  is  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  ? 

89.  Wheat  bran  contains  9  per  cent  crude  fiber  of 
which  22  per  cent  is  digestible,  and  53.9  per  cent  of  nitro- 
gen-free extract,  of  which  69  per  cent  is  digestible.  What 
is  the  percentage  of  digestibility  of  each  constituent  ? 

90.  In  600  pounds  of  wheat  bran,  what  is  the  total 
digestible  quantity  of  each  of  these  constituents  ? 

The  important  three  compounds.  Protein,  carbohy- 
drates (nitrogen-free  extract  and  fiber),  and  fat  are  the 


2.000  lbs. 


250  lbs. 
140  lbs. 


ABC 

Protein  in  Clover  Hay. 

A  represents  all  nutrients  in  clover  hay;  B,  the  protein  in  one  ton;  and  C,  the 
digestible  protein  in  a  ton. 


ANIMAL   FEEDING.  45 

three  important  constituents  to  be  considered  in  the  feed- 
ing of  animals. 

Foods  usually  contain  an  amount  of  ash  sufficient  to 
supply  all  the  mineral  needs  of  the  body,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  sodium  and  chlorine.  Both  of  these  are  supplied 
in  salt. 

What  they  do:  1.  Protein  (the  muscle  maker) 
enters  into  the  formation  of  the  organs  of  the  body,  mus- 
cle, bone,  skin,  blood,  milk,  etc. 

2.  Carbohydrates  (heat  and  fat  producers)  are  used 
in  the  production  of  heat,  fat,  and  energy. 

3.  Fat  (heat  and  fat  producer)  also  is  used  in  the 
production  of  fat,  heat,  and  energy. 

Heat  value.  Careful  calculation  has  shown  that  one 
pound  of  fat  will  produce  2.4  times  as  much  heat  as  one 
pound  of  carbohydrates. 

91.  How  many  pounds  of  carbohydrates  equal  one 
pound  of  fat  ? 

92.  Corn  contains  4.3  per  cent  digestible  fat.  In  a 
ton  of  corn  the  fat  content  is  equivalent  to  how  many 
pounds  of  carbohydrates? 

93.  The  heat  value  of  carbohydrates  and  fat  in  a  ton 
of  cottonseed  meal  is  923.6  pounds.  The  amount  of  car- 
bohydrates in  100  pounds  cottonseed  meal  is  16.9  per  cent. 
How  many  pounds  of  fat  in  a  ton  of  cottonseed  meal  ? 

Nutritive  ratio.  Food  may  be  said  to  do  two  things : 
(1)  It  furnishes  the  protein  for  growth,  daily  waste, 
blood,  etc.;  (2)  it  furnishes  the  materials  for  fat,  heat, 
and  energy. 

The  ratio  between  digestible  protein  and  digestible  heat 
and  fat-producing  elements   (carbohydrates  and  fat  re- 


46 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


FEEDING  STUFF 


NUTRITIVE 
RATIO 


IPROTEIN 
DCARBOHYDRATESiScFAT 


DRIED  BLOOD 

TANKAGE 

COTTON  SEED  MEAL 

LINSEED  MEAL 

SOY  BEANS 

SKIM  MILK 

GLUTEN  FEED 

COW  PEAS 

DRIED  BREWERS'GRAINS 

COWS  MILK 

WHEAT  BRAN 

ALFALFA 

COW  PEA  HAY 

PASTURE  GRASS 

WHEAT  MIDDLINGS 

MANGLES 

RAPE 

RED  CLOVER  HAY 

OATS 

BUCKWHEAT 

RYE 

WHEAT 

TURNIPS 

KAFIR  CORN 

BLUE  GRASS 

CORN 

BEET  PULP 

MILLET  HAY 

PRAIRIE  HAY 

CORN  SILAGE 

CORN  &  COB  MEAL 

TIMOTHY  HAY 

POTATO 

CORN  STOVER 

KAFIR  CORN  STOVER 

S0R6UM  HAY 

OAT  STRAW 

WHEAT  STRAW 


Nutritive  Ratio  of  Some  Common  Feeding  Stuffs. 


ANIMAL  FEEDING. 


47 


duced  to  carbohydrate  equivaknt)  for  any  food  or  com- 
bination of  foods  is  called  the  nutritive  ratio.  It  may  be 
expressed  as  wide,  medium  or  narrow,  depending  upon 
its  value.    Timothy  hay,  1  to  16,  is  wide. 

94.  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  corn,  containing  7.8 
per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  66.7  per  cent  digestible  car- 
bohydrates, and  4.3  per  cent  of  digestible  fat? 

Fat  will  produce  2.4  times  as  much  heat  as  the  same  amount 
of  carbohydrates.  The  carbohydrate  equivalent,  therefore,  of  4.3% 
of  fat  is  2.4  X  4.3%  or  10.3%,  i.  e.,  the  heat  and  fat-producing 
power  of  a  feed  containing  4.3%  digestible  fat  is  the  same  as  one 
containing  10.3%  of  digestible  carbohydrates.  The  total  heat  and 
fat-producing  power  of  corn  is,  therefore,  66.7%  +  10.3%  ■=  77.0%. 
The  nutritive  ratio,  therefore,  is  77.0  -^  7.8  =  9.8  This  fact  is 
expressed  by  saying  the  nutritive  ratio  of  corn  is  1  to  9.8, 

Process:  (1)  Reduce  the  fat  to  its  carbohydrate  equivalent, 
(2)  add  the  carbohydrates  and  (3)  divjde  this  sum  by  the  protein. 

Table  Showing  Digestible  Nutrients. 


Dry 

matter 

Digestible  nutrients 
per  cents 

Nutritive 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

ratio 

Com 

89.1 
89.5 
89.0 
89.7 
91.8 
86.8 
84.7 
91.6 

7.9 
10.2 

9.2 
12.5 
37.2 

2.8 

6.8 
11.0 

66.7 
69.2 
47.3 
30.0 
16.9 
43.4 
35.8 
39.6 

4.3 
1.7 
4.2 
17.3 
12.2 
1.4 
1.7 
1.2 

1  to  9.8 
1  to  7  2 

Wheat 

Oats 

3  to  1.0 

Cottonseed  meal   

Timothy  hay 

Alfalfa  hay 

95.     Check  the  nutritive  ratios  as  shown  in  the  last 
column  of  the  above  table. 


96.  Fill  out  the  remainder  of  the  last  column. 

97.  Name  the  feeds  having  a  wide  nutritive  ratio,  nar- 
row, medium, 


48 


FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


98.  In  a  ton  of  wheat  middlings  we  find  1,224  pounds 
of  carbohydrates  and  fat  (reduced  to  carbohydrates). 
The  nutritive  ratio  is  1  : 4.8.  How  many  pounds  of  pro- 
tein in  a  ton  of  this  food  ?      Ans.    255  pounds. 

99.  What  percentage  of  wheat  middHngs  is  digestible 
protein  ? 


FEEDING  STUFF 

TOTAL  POUNDS  OF  WATER  IN  100  POUNDS  OF  SUBSTANCE 

5    10   15  20  25  30  35  40       50        60        70       80       90      IOC 

GREEN  CORN 

CORN  SILAGE 

CORN  STOVER.FIELD  CURED 

DENT  CORN 

PASTURE  GRASS 

RED  CLOVER 

RED  CLOVER  HAY 

TURNIP 

WHEAT,  GREEN 

WHEAT  STRAW 

WHEAT,  GRAIN  OF 

WHEAT  BRAN 

APPLES 

POTATOES 

SKIM  MILK 

^ 

^— 

= 

Growing  Plants  Contain  Much  Water. 

Several  common  feeding  stuffs  are  here  compared  to  show  the  large  quanti- 
ties of  water  they  contain.  Note  the  change  when  harvested  and  cured  as  dry 
provender. 


Important  truth.  No  two  feeds  have  exactly  the  same 
nutritive  ratio.  Some  are  high  in  protein;  others  low. 
This  gives  rise  to  the  practice  of  mixing  feeds  so  as  to 
balance  the  ration  in  order  that  the  animal  may  get  pro- 
tein, carbohydrates,  and  fat  in  correct  proportions  and  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  body. 

Feeding  standards.  Different  animals  require  differ- 
ent nutritive  ratios  and  different  quantities  of  food.  The 
best  nutritive  ratio  and  the  proper  quantity  of  food  are 
also  dependent  upon  the  use  to  which  the  anirnal  is  put. 


ANIMAL   FEEDING. 


49 


A  dairy  cow  to  produce  a  large  yield  of  milk  must  have  a 
feed  rich  in  protein.  Such  a  cow  will  lose  in  quantity  of 
milk  and  grow  fat  if  given  a  feed  low  in  protein  and  high 
ir.  carbohydrates  and  fat.  A  horse  at  heavy  work  requires 
a  very  different  feed  from  one  at  light  work ;  a  growing 
pig  from  one  that  is  being  fattened  for  market.  Igno- 
rance of  these  facts  occasions  great  waste  of  feed  and 
frequent  disappointment  in  results. 


Feeding  Standards  Per  Day,  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight. 


Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients— pounds 

Nutritive 

Kind  of  animal 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

ratio 

Ox  (at  rest) 

18.0 
30.0 

25.0 
30.0 

20.0 
24.0 

36.0 
30.0 

0.7 
2.5 

1.6 
2.5 

1.5 
2.0 

4.5 
4.0 

8.0 
15.0 

10.0 
13.0 

9.5 
11.0 

25.0 
24.0 

0.1 
0.5 

0.3 
0.5 

0.4 
0.6 

0.7 
0.5 

1  to  11.8 

Calves.. 

1  to    6.5 

Dairy  cow 

11  ixjunds  milk  daily 
22  pounds  milk  daily 

Horses 

Moderate  work 

Pigs 

100.  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  feeding  stand- 
ard for  the  ox  at  rest  ? 

101.  For  a  young  calf  ? 

102.  For  a  dairy  cow  giving  11  pounds  of  milk  daily? 

103.  For  a  dairy  cow  giving  22  pounds  of  milk  daily? 

104.  For  a  horse  doing  a  moderate  amount  of  work? 

105.  For  growing  pigs? 

106.  What  would  be  the  amount  of  dry  matter  and  of 
each  of  th^  three  nutrients  required  to  feed  a  dairy  cow 


50  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

weighing  1,000  pounds  for  one  month?     Twenty  such 
cows  for  one  year? 

Any  printed  feeding  standard  is  simply  a  rough  guide 
to  be  used  in  feeding  animals.  It  gives  approximately 
the  amount  to  be  fed  per  1,000  pounds  of  live  weight. 
Even  for  animals  of  the  same  class  and  weight  it  should 
not  be  regarded  as  inflexible.  It  should  be  varied  as  ex- 
perience .and  careful  observation  may  seem  to  warrant. 
Temperaments  and  individual  peculiarities  are  always  to 
be  considered. 

Compounding  of  rations.  An  animal  uses  food  for 
at  least  five  different  and  distinct  purposes : 

1.  To  replace  the  waste  of  all  parts  of  the  body. 

2.  To  produce  heat  and  to  keep  the  body  warm. 

3.  To  make  growth  or  increase  the  body  in  muscle, 
fat,  flesh,  bone,  etc. 

4.  To  produce  energy  so  that  work  may  be  done. 

5.  To  produce  hair,  wool,  milk.  etc. 

To  meet  the  demands  the  food  must  contain  protein, 
carbohydrates  and  fat.  To  obtain  a  food  containing  these 
nutrients  in  the  quantity  and  proportion  required  for  one 
or  more  of  the  above  purposes  gives  rise  to  the  com- 
pounding of  feeding  rations. 

107.  For  a  dairy  cow  giving  22  pounds  of  milk  daily, 
how  many  pounds  of  each  of  the  following  feeding  stuffs 
will  be  required? 


ANIMAL   FEEDING.  61 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  Some  Common  Feeding  Stuffs. 


Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

S9.S 
89.3 
84.7 
88.9 
91.8 
88.1 

1.7 

10.8 

6.8 

0.3 

37.2 

12.2 

32.4 
38.6 
35.8 
33.1 
16.9 
39.2 

0  7 

Cowpea  

1  1 

Clover  hay 

1  7 

Cottonseed  hulls   

1  7 

Cottonseed  meal 

12  2 

Wheat  bran. 

2.7 

Process :  For  a  trial  ration  suppose  we  decide  to  take  10 
pounds  of  corn  stover,  10  pounds  of  cowpea  hay,  5  pounds  of 
clover  hay.  The  digestible  nutrients  in  these  are  ascertained  as 
follows : 

Corn  stover  is 

59.5  per  cent  dry  matter, 

1.7  per  cent  digestible  protein, 
32.4  per  cent  digestible  carbohydrates, 

0.7  per  cent  digestible  fat. 

Therefore  in  10  pounds  there  will  be,  approximately: 
Dry  matter,  .595  X  10  =  6.0  pounds. 

Protein,  .017  X  10  =  0.2  pounds. 

Carbohydrates,  .324  X  10  =  3.2  pounds. 

Fat,  .007  X  10  =  0.1  pounds. 

The  digestible  nutrients  of  cowpea  hay  are  ascertained  in  the 


same  way : 

Cowpea  hay — 10  pounds 

Dry  matter, 
Protein, 
Carbohydrates, 
Fat, 

.893  X  10  =  8.9  pounds, 
.108  X  10  =  1.1  pounds, 
.386  X  10  =  3.9  pounds, 
.011  X  10  =  0.1  pounds. 

Clover  hay — 5  pounds. 

Dry  matter, 
Protein, 
Carbohydrates, 
Fat, 

.847  X  5  =  4.2  pounds, 
.068  X  5  =  0.3  pounds, 
.358  X  5  =  1.8  pounds, 
.017  X    5  =  0.1  pounds. 

Arranging  these  for  comparison  with  the  feeding  stand- 
ard, to  see  whether  the  proportions  and  quantities  of 


52 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


nutrients  are  correct,  we  have  a  trial  ration  for  dairy 
cow  weighing  1,000  pounds  and  yielding  22  pounds  of 
milk  daily : 

Trial  Ration  for  Dairy  Cow. 


Feeding  stuff 

Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients — pounds 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

10  pounds  corn  stover 

6.0 
8.9 

4.2 

19.1 
30.0 

C.2 
1.1 
0.3 

1.6 

2.5 

3.2 
3.9 
1.8 

8.9 

13.0 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

Trial  ration 

0.3 

0.5 

This  trial  ration  falls  considerably  below  the  require- 
ment in  every  way.  It  must  be  increased  so  as  to  meet 
the  standard  as  nearly  as  possible.  To  correct  these  defi- , 
ciencies  and  to  complete  the  ration,  let  us  try  the  effect 


Producing  Milk  Under  Sanitary  Conditions. 


ANIMAL    FEEDING. 


53 


of  adding  9  pounds  of  cottonseed  hulls,  2  pounds  of  cot- 
tonseed meal  and  1  pound  of  wheat  bran. 
This  second  trial  is  shown  in  the  table  below : 


Second  Trial  Ration"  for  Dairy 

Cow. 

Dry 

matter 

Digestible  nutrients — pounds 

Nutritive 

Feeding  stuff 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

ratio 

Preceding  trial  ration 
1 0  pounds  corn  stover 
10  pounds  cowpea  hay 
5  pounds  clover  hay 
9  pounds  cottonseed 

hulls 

2  pounds  cottonseed 

meal 

1  pound  wneat  bran . . 

19.1 

8.0 

1.8 
0.9 

29.8 

30.0 

1.6 

0.0 

0.7 
0.1 

2.4 

2.5 

8.9 

3.0 

0.3 
0.4 

12.6 

13.0 

0.3 

0.2 

0.2 
0.0 

0.7 

0.5 

Second  trial  ration 

1  to  6 

Feeding  standard 

1  to  5.7 

The  second  trial  ration  meets  the  standard  approximately  both 
as  to.  quantity  and  proportions  of  nutrients.  From  this  we  learn 
that  10  pounds  of  corn  stover,  10  pounds  of  cowpea  hay,  5 
pounds  of  clover  hay,  9  pounds  of  cottonseed  hulls,  2  pounds  of 
cottonseed  meal  and  1  pound  of  wheat  bran  make  a  well-balanced 
feed  and  should  be  a  satisfactory  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  weighing 
1,000  pounds  and  yielding  about  three  gallons  of  milk  daily. 

Note. — It  is  not  necessary  to  compound  a  ration  meeting  the 
standard  with  exactness.  A  reasonable  approach  to  it  is  all  that 
is  required. 

108.  What  quantities  each  of  five  feeding  stufifs  used 
at  your  home  may  be  used  in  combination  so  as  to  furnish 
an  approximately  balanced  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  weigh- 
ing 1,000  pounds  and  yielding  22  pounds  of  milk  daily  ? 

Note. — For  digestible  nutrients  see  appendix. 

109.  Using  for  the  purpose  timothy  hay,  corn,  oats, 
and  bran,  how  many  pounds  each  will  be  required  for 
feeding  a  horse  weighing  1,000  pounds  and  doing  light 
work? 


54 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


110.  When  corn  stover,  clover  hay,  cottonseed  meal, 
and  wheat  bran  are  available,  what  quantities  of  each 
may  be  fed  a  cow  weighing  1,000  pounds  and  yielding  11 
pounds  of  milk  daily? 

Important  truth.  Animals  to  do  their  work  effi- 
ciently must  be  properly  fed.  A  feeding  stuff  is  valuable 
in    proportion    to    the    quantity    of    digestible    nutrients 


Poor  Way  to  Feed  Sheep. 

A  large  amount  of  fodder  is  wasted  because  sheep  will  not  eat  it  after  they  have 
once   run   over   the   stalks. 


it  contains.  For  this  reason  rational  feeding  calls 
for  a  variety  of  materials  in  order  that  all  nutrients  may 
be  furnished  in  correct  proportions  and  quantities.  A 
ration  properly  compounded  may  mean  not  only  better 
work  or  more  milk  or  mor€  rapid  development,  but  a 
saving  in  cost  as  well. 

Cost  of  digestible  nutrients.    That  the  daily  ration 
fed  an  animal  should  be  furnished  as  cheaply  as  possi- 


ANIMAL   FEEDING.  55 

ble  there  is  no  question.  Since  feeding  stuffs  vary  in 
cost  or  value  as  well  as  in  amount  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents, it  follows  that  in  compounding  rations  market  prices 
of  feeds  should  always  be  considered.  The  farm  is  a 
factory  for  producing  carbohydrates  and  fat.  As  much 
protein  as  possible  should  be  grown  also.  Usually,  how- 
ever, this  cannot  be  done  suffici-ently  to  supply  every  need ; 
hence  it  must  be  purchased.  Without  it  best  results  can- 
not follow. 

What  protein  costs.  It  is  possible  for  the  farmer  to 
purchase  corn,  oats,  gluten  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  wheat 
bran,  and  numerous  other  grains  or  feeding  stuffs  con- 
taining protein.     In  what  form  shall  he  purchase  it  ? 

111.  Corn  contains  7.9  per  cent  digestible  protein. 
When  corn  sells  for  $20  a  ton  what  is  the  cost  of  a  pound 
of  digestible  protein  ? 

7.9  X  20  =  158  pounds  in  a  ton. 

158  pounds  cost  $20. 

1  pound  costs  12.6  cents. 

112.  Cottonseed  meal  contains  37.2  per  cent  of  digesti- 
ble protein.  When  it  sells  for  $32  a  ton,  what  is  the  cost 
of  .each  pound  of  digestible  protein  ? 

113.  When  a  pound  of  digestible  protein  costs  12.6 
cents  in  corn  and  4.3  cents  in  cottonseed  meal,  how  many 
times  more  expensive  is  it  in  corn  than  in  cottonseed 
meal? 

114.  When  gluten  meal  sells  at  $25  a  ton,  a  pound  of 
digestible  protein  costs  4.9  cents.  How  many  pounds  of 
digestible  protein  in  a  ton  of  gluten? 

Cost  of  total  digestible  nutrients.  In  purchasing 
feeding  stuffs  the  number  of  pounds  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents must  be  considered  as  well  as  the  cost  per  ton. 


56 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


Digestible   nutrients 
in  100  pounds 

Total 
digestible 

Feeding  stuff 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Total 

nutrients 
in  one  ton 

Corn 

7.9 
9.3 

37.2 
12.2 

66.7 
47.3 
16.9 
39.2 

4.3 

4.2 

12.2 

2.7 

78.9 
60.7 
66.3 
54.1 

1,578 

Oats 

1,214 

Cottonseed  meal   

Wheat  bran 

1,326 
1,082 

115.  In  a  ton  of  corn  there  are  1,578  pounds  of  nutri- 
ents. When  corn  is  $20  a  ton  what  is  the  cost  of  a  pound 
of  nutrients? 

116.  At  the  same  value  per  pound  for  nutrients  what 
should  oats  be  worth  a  ton  ?    A  bushel  ? 

117.  When  corn  is  worth  50  cents  a  bushel  what  is 
the  value  of  a  pound  of  nutrients  ? 

118.  At  the  same  value  per  pound  what  should  be  the 
vai»e  of  oats  a  bushel  ? 

119.  Wheat  bran  carries  1,082  pounds  of  nutrients  to 
the  ton.  When  it  sells  for  $3  per  hundred,  what  is  the 
value  of  a  ton  of  cottonseed  meal  on  basis  of  total  nutri- 
ents? 

120.  When  cottonseed  meal  is  worth  $32  a  ton  what 
does  a  pound  of  digestible  nutrients  cost  ? 

121.  At  the  same  value  per  pound  what  is  a  ton  of 
bran  worth? 

Important  truth.  Judgment  must  be  exercised  in 
the  selection  of  a  concentrated  feeding  stuff.  As  a  rule 
protein  is  the  nutrient  that  is  wanted  and  for  it  the  pur- 
chase is  especially  made.  Even  if  the  cost  for  a  pound 
of  nutrients  in  bran  and  cottonseed  meal,  for  instance, 
were  the   same,   cottonseed   meal   would  be  preferable, 


ANIMAL   FEEDING. 


57 


since  it  contains  over  three  times  as  much  protein.  Since 
protein  is  the  most  difficult  nutrient  to  obtain,  and  hence 
the  most  costly,  that  feeding  stuff  supplying  it  most 
abundantly  and  cheaply  is  always  to  be  selected. 


5JU6C-GRAIN 

FOR 
DAIRY  COWS 


6.4lbs.MixedHdy 


AVERAGE  DAILY 
RATION 

Consumed  by  each  cow 
fed  the  silage  ration 


AVERAGE  DAILY 

RATION 
Consumed  breach  cow 
fed  the  5|)ecial  grain  ration 


Money  Is  Made  Where  the  Right  Feed  Is  Provided. 
Two   rations   for  dairy   cows   are   compared.      From   one  8.9  pounds   of  butter 
were    produced    from    one    dollar's    worth    of    feed,    while    from    the    other   but 
5.28   pounds   of  butter  were   obtained.     This   shows   how   two   rations   may   cost 
the  same  and  one  may  be  worth  a  great  deal  more  for  final  returns. 


Purchase  of  hay.    What  has  been  said  with  reference 
to  concentrates  is  also  true  of  roughage  feeds.    Select 


58 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


those  that  furnish  nutrients  at  least  cost  and  at  the  same 
time  contain  the  highest  quantity  of  protein. 


Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds 

Total 
digestible 

Feeding   stuff 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Total 

nutrients 
in  one  ton 

Timothy  hay 

2.8 
10.8 

6.8 
11.0 

1.7 

43.4 
38.6 
35.8 
39.6 
32.4 

1.4 
1.1 
1.7 
1.2 
0.7 

47.6 
50.4 
44.3 
51.8 
34.8 

952 

Cowpea  hay 

1  008 

Clover  hav 

886 

Alfalfa  hay 

1  036 

696 

122.  When  timothy  hay  is  worth  $20  per  ton  on  basis 
of  total  digestible  nutrients,  what  is  cowpea  hay  worth? 

123.  Clover  hay? 

124.  Alfalfa  hay? 

125.  Corn  stover? 

126.  When  timothy  hay  sells  for  $20  per  ton  and 
clover  hay  for  $10,  how  much  more  costly  is  a  pound  of 
nutrients  in  timothy  hay  than  in  clover  hay? 

127.  How  many  dollars  would  represent  the  commer- 
cial difference  if  100  tons  were  purchased? 

Important  truth.  Consider  the  protein  content  in  the 
sale  or  purchase  of  hays  just  as  carefully  as  you  would 
do  with  the  concentrates.  At  the  same  price  per  ton, 
cowpea  hay  and  alfalfa  hay  are  to  be  preferred  to  tim- 
othy because  of  the  greater  amount  of  protein  and  total 
digestible  nutrients  contained.  It  is  wise  farming  not 
only  to  grow  all  hay  and  roughage  material  for  feed, 
but  also  to  select  for  growing  those  that  are  rich  in  pro- 
tein— the  most  costly  and  most  important  nutrient 


ANIMAL  FEEDING.  59 

Compounding  Rations  with  Reference  to  Cost. 

128.  Use  the  following  feeding  stuffs  for  compound- 
ing a  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  weighing  1,000  pounds  and 
giving  22  pounds  of  milk  daily.  Timothy  worth  $20  per 
ton,  corn  stover  $5,  corn  $20,  and  oats  $30.  What  is  the 
daily  cost  of  the  ration  ? 

129.  Use  the  following  feeding  stuffs  for  compound- 
ing a  ration  for  the  same  cow  :  Cowpea  hay,  worth  $10  pei 
ton ;  clover  hay,  $10 ;  cottonseed  meal,  $32 ;  and  wheat 
bran,  $24.    What  is  the  daily  cost  of  the  ration  ? 

130.  What  is  the  difference  in  cents  of  the  daily  cost 
between  these  two  rations  ?    Yearly  cost  ? 


Pure'Bred  Dairy  Cattle  at  Pasture, 


CHAPTER  III. 
HUMAN   FEEDING. 

Man  must  eat  to  live.  He  should  apply  every  known 
principle  of  nutrition  to  his  feeding.  He  should  con- 
sider his  daily  ration  from  the  standpoint  of  its  supply 
of  digestible  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat,  as  well  as 
of  its  cost.  He  can  do  this  wisely  and  well  only  in  propor- 
tion to  his  knowledge  of  the  subject  and  the  consideration 
given  to  it. 

Food  and  food  economy.  The  ingredients  of  food 
and  their  uses  in  the  body  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

Nutrients  in  Human  Food. 
I.  Edible — e.  g.,  meat, 


r   1.  iidible — e.  g.,  meat,  r 
Food  as  eggs,  bread,  veg-  |  Water         r  Protein 

purchased  <J  _    _  etables,   etc.  -=;  |  Fats 

I  Carbohj 
t.  Minerals 


contains     |  II.  Refuse  —  bones,   I  Nutrients  <  ^    ,    ,     , 

shells,  etc.  L  I  Carbohydrates 


Uses  of  Nutrients. 

Protein  forms  tissue — 

e.  g.,  albumen  of  the  white  of  o^gg, 

casein  of  milk,  lean  meat, 

gluten  of  grains. 
Fats  are  stored  as  fat — • 

e.  g.,  fat  of  meat,  butter,  lard, 

oils,  grains,  nuts. 
Carbohydrates  are  formed  into  fat — 

e.  g.,  sugar,  starch,  fiber. 
Mineral^   (ash)    forms    bone,    assists    in 
digestion — 

e.  g.,  phosphate  of  lime,  potash,  etc.  . 


All  serve  as  fuel 
to  yield  energy  i'-> 
forms  of  heat  and 
muscular  power. 


HUMAN   FEEDING. 


61 


Nutrients  in 

Some  Common  Foods. 

In  100  pounds  or 
in  per  cent. 

Digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds 
or  in  per  cent. 

-  Kind  of  food 

Refuse 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Beef  loin 

13..3 
20.8 
4.7 
18.4 
19.7 
13.6 
25.9 
22.7 
44.7 

11.2 

l.S.O 
20.0 
20.0 

25.0 

35.0 

27.0 

5.0 

52.5 
43.8 
53.7 
51.2 
41.8 
34.8 
47.1 
42.4 
40.4 
88.3 
65.5 
87.0 
90.5 
74.0 
11.0 
12.0 
12.5 
35.3 
6.8 
12.6 
77.7 
62.6 
55.2 
94.3 
63.3 
48.9 
63.4 
85.9 

15.6 

13.5 

25.6 

14.6 

13.0 

13.8 

13.3 

15.6 

9.9 

5.8 

12.7 

3.2 

3.3 

2.4 

1.0 

9.7 

7.8 

7.8 

8.2 

17.5 

1.2 

1.5 

1.2 

0.7 

0.3 

0.7 

0.5 

0.8 

16.6 

20.0 

6.6 

14.0 

23.0 

31.7 

11.7 

17.5 

4.0 

1.2 

8.8 

3.8 

0.3 

17.6 

80.8 

0.9 

1.7 

1.2 

10.9 

1.6 

0.2 

0.1 

0.5 

0.5 

0.3 

0.4 

0.1 

0.5 

Beef  ribs 

Dried  beef 

Leg  of  mutton 

Pork  chops 

Cured  ham 

Fowl 

Turkey 

Fresh  mackerel 

Oysters 

3  3 

Raw  eggs 

Whole  milk 

5  0 

Skim  milk 

5.1 
4.5 

Cream . . . 

Butter. . 

Wheat  flour 

73  6 

73  9 

Wheat  bread,  white.  .  . 
Cream  crackers 

52.0 
68.3 
57  8 

4  6 

Potatoes,  Irish. . . 

Potatoes,  sweet 

Tomatoes 

14.0 

20.8 

3.7 

9  7 

12  9 

7  7 

6  3 

131.     In  a  purchase  of  ten  pounds  each  of  beef  loin 

and  ribs,  how  many  pounds  more  of  digestible  protein 

do  you  secure  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  ? 

Process:    Turning  to  table,  we   find  beef   loin   contains   15.6 
pounds  protein  and  beef  ribs  13.5  in  100  of  fresh  substance. 
Loin,  15.6  ^  100  X  10  =  1.56 

Ribs,  13.5  ^  100  X  10  =  1.35 


Difference, 


.21 


Note. — We  are  here  preserving  an  additional  figure,  since  the 
weighing  is  much  more  accurate  than  in  the  preceding  chapters. 
The  last  figure  even  here,  however,  has  but  little  significance. 

132.  What  is  the  difference  in  amount  of  fat  in  these 
foods  when  20  pounds  of  each  are  purchased  ? 


62 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


133.  How  many  pounds  difference  of  protein  and  fat 
in  a  purchase  of  20  pounds  each  of  pork  chops  and  cured 
ham? 

134.  What  is  the  percentage  of  difference? 

135.  What  is  the  difference  of  total  digestible  nutri- 
ents (protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat)  in  100  pounds  of 
corn  meal  and  100  pounds  of  wheat  flour  ? 


Where  Peace  and  Sympathy  Abound. 

No  matter  what  the  future  may  bring  the  happy  days  of  childhood  in  the  coun- 
try never  depart  from  adult  memory. 


136.  A  man  doing  moderate  work  requires  .24  pounds 
of  protein  daily.  If  he  eats  oysters  solely,  how  many 
pounds  will  be  required  to  furnish  the  needed  protein  ? 

137.  If  he  uses  crackers  as  food  for  the  day,  how 


HUMAN    FEEDING, 


63 


many  pounds  will  be  required  to  furnish  the  .24  pounds  of 
protein  ? 

138.  He  requires  .12  pounds  of  fat  daily.  How  nearly 
does  this  quantity  of  crackers  meet  the  fat  required  ? 

139.  He  requires  1.12  pounds  of  carbohydrates.  How 
nearly  does  the  quantity  of  crackers  meet  the  carbohy- 
drate requirement? 


Apples, 
!2lbs.  4oz. 


Ipt.  or  lib.  of  Milk 
5  cz.  of  Froteio. 
Beef,   3 or. 


Bread 
6.4  oz. 


Potatoes,2ll  Eggs,  Beans,  Cheese, 

2  lbs.  4.9oz  2.6oz.  2.2oz. 

Protein  the  Same  in  All. 

Here  is  shown  the  weight  of  food  required  to  yield  the  equivalent  of  protein 
in  one  pound  of  milk. 


140.  By  using  butter,  whole  milk  and  beef  loin  in  con- 
nection with  crackers,  how  many  pounds  of  each  will  be 
necessary  for  the  daily  ration  of  the  man  doing  moderate 
work  when  the  dietary  (feeding)  standard  calls  for  .24 
pounds  of  protein,  .12  pounds  fat  and  1.12  pounds  carbo- 
hydrates ? 


64 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


141.  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  this  ration? 

142.  Beef  loin  is  worth  25  cents  per  pound,  butter 

25  cents  per  pound,  whole  milk  3  cents  per  pound,  and 

crackers  5  cents  per  pound.    What  is  the  cost  of  the  daily 

ration  ? 

Note. — For  solution  of  139,  140  and  141  follow  same  method  as 
used  in  compounding  rations  for  animals.  Consult  table  on  page 
61  for  nutrient  content. 

Cost  of  Nutrients.  Cost  is  a  factor  of 
considerable  consequence  in  the  selec- 
tion of  food  materials.  Where  different 
food  materials  are  equally  palatable, 
nutritious,  and  otherwise  suited  for 
nourishment,  those  furnishing  the  larg- 
est amounts  of  available  nutrients  at 
lowest  cost  naturally  should  be  selected. 

143.  When  beef  loin  sells  at  25  cents 
per  pound,  how  many  pounds  of  digesti- 
ble nutrient  may  be  purchased  for  $1.00? 

Process :   Since  1  pound  costs  $0.25,  $1.00  will 
buy  4  pounds. 
Beef  loin  contains — 
In  100  In  4 

of^tfk   Tw'iyI    ^     pounds  pounds 

retards     bacterial     Protem,  15.6  ^100  X  4  =  .62 

growth.  Fat,  16.6  -^  100  X  4  =  .66 


Total,  1.28 

From  four  pounds  of  beef  loin  costing  $1.00  the  purchaser  ob- 
tains 1.28  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients. 

144.  What  is  the  cost  of  1  pound  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents? 

100  ^  1.28  =  78  cents. 

145.  When  beef  loin  sells  at  12^  cents  per  pound, 
what  amount  of  digestible  nutrient  is  obtained  for  $1.00? 


HUMAN    FEEDING.  65 

146.  What  is  the  cost  of  each  pound  of  nutrients? 

147.  When  pork  chops  cost  12  cents  per  pound,  what 
is  the  cost  of  a  pound  of  nutrients  ? 

148.  When  milk  costs  3  cents  a  pint  (1  pound),  what 
is  the  cost  of  a  pound  of  nutrients  ? 


Rump  Cut  From  High-Grade  Animal. 

Observe  distribution  of  large  and  small  particles  of  fat,  showing  high  quality 
of  meat. 

149.  When  potatoes  cost  60  cents  per  bushel,  what  is 
the  cost  of  a  pound  of  nutrients  ? 

Comparative  cost  of  nutrients.  The  market  price  of 
food  materials  is  not  regulated  by  the  amount  and  value 
of  the  nutrients  contained  therein.  Nutrients  contained 
in  one  kind  of  food  may  be  of  no  greater  value  than  that 
contained  in  another,  yet  it  may  cost  more  per  pound. 
Total  bulk  has  but  little  to  do  with  the  problem.    Other 


66 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


things  being  equal,  the  selection  of  food  materials  should 
take  into  account  the  comparative  cost  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents. It  may  even  happen  that  the  cheapest  food  from 
this  standpoint  is  the  more  appetizing  and  otherwise  de- 
sirable when  properly  prepared. 

.._^.  150.     When  oysters   sell   for  35 

cents  per  quart,  5.6  pounds  are  ob- 
tained  for   $1.     What   amount  of 
digestible  nutrients  will  this  quan- 
^^^M^i  tity  contain? 

151.  If,  instead,  you  spend  $1.00 
for  beef  loin,  paying  20  cents  per 
pound  for  it,  what  quantity  of 
digestible  nutrients  do  you  receive? 


Growth  of  Bacteria. 


Showing  the  growth  of 
bacteria  at  different  tem- 
peratures during  24  hours, 
each  dot  representing  a 
single  bacterium.  A,  at  50 
degrees,  7  bacteria;  B,  at 
70  degrees,  700  bacteria. 


152.     You  spend  $1.00  for  wheat 
flour,  paying  three  cents  per  pound 
for  it.    How  many  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients  do  you 
get? 

153.  Finally  you  make  a  purchase  of  beans,  the  cost 
of  which  is  5  cents  per  pound.  What  quantity  of  digesti- 
ble nutrients  do  you  obtain  for  $1.00  ? 


Dietary  Standards. 

Digestible  nutrients 

Age  and  work  performed 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Boy  and  girl,  10-12 

0.14 
0.19 
0.19 
0.22 
0.22 
0.24 

0.67 
0.89 
0.89 
1.00 
1.00 
1.12 

0  07 

0  09 

Girl,  14-16 

0.09 

Boy,  14-16 

0.10 

0.10 

0,12 

154.  What  quantity  each  of  wheat  flour,  butter,  eggs, 
and  whole  milk  will  be  required  for  daily  food  for  a  boy 
and  girl  14-16  years  old  ? 


HUMAN    FEEDING. 


67 


Note. — Proceed  just  as  you  did  with  the  compounding  of  ani- 
mal rations.     Consult  table  on  page  61  for  nutrient  content. 

155.  At  the  following  prices,  wheat  flour  3  cents  a 
pound,  butter  25  cents  a  pound,  eggs  25  cents  a  dozen, 
beef  loin  25  cents  a  pound,  and  milk  8  cents  a  pound,  what 
is  the  cost  of  a  day's  requirement? 

Important  truth.  For  the  great  majority  of  people  in 
good  health,  the  ordinary  food  materials — meats,  fish, 
eggs,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  sugar,  flour,  rice,  meal,  nuts, 
fruits,  potatoes,  and  other  vegetables — make  a  fitting  diet. 
The  great  problem  is  to  supply  these  foods  in  such  quan- 
tities and  proportions  as  is  best  suited  to  the  actual  needs 
of  the  body.  The  problem  is  of  very  great  importance  in 
the  case  of  growing  children  and  of  adults  who  are  not  in 
normal  health. 


Of  Fine  Form  and  High  Quality. 
These  Angus  steers  secured  championship  honors  at  one  of  the  recent  Inter- 
national live  stock  shows.     At  the  time  the  picture  was  taken  they  were  three 
Kears  old.     Right  after  the  show  they  were  slaughtered  for  beef. 


68 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


Mineral  nutrients.  In  feeding  farm  animals  little  at- 
tention is  given  the  question  of  mineral  supply,  since  hays, 
roughage  material,  grains,  and  their  by-products  form  the 
bulk  of  the  ration.  Mineral  nutrients,  therefore,  are  fur- 
nished in  sufficient  quantities. 

With  man  it  is  different.  Wheat  is  robbed  of  its  bran, 
meat  of  its  bone,  eggs  of  their  shells.  These  contain 
much  of  the  mineral  salts.     They  are  fed  to  live  stock 


FOOD 

TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  POUNDS  IN  2O00  POUNDS  OF  SUBSTANCE 

5 10  20  30         50            7.5            IQO           125          150            175       200 

WHOLE  WHEAT 
FLOUR 
WHEAT  BRAN 
CORN 

CORN  MEAL 
DRIED  BEET  PULP 
OATS 

OAT  MEAL 
PEAS, GARDEN 
BEANS.  GARDEN 
BEEF 
CHEESE 
TIMOTHY  HAY 
RED  CLOVER  HAY 
ALFALFA  HAY 

;^^^ 

HT 

"— 

— 

Mineral  Matter  in  Some  Common  Foods. 

Note  the  small  amount  of  mineral  matter  in  a  ton  of  wheat  flour.  Wheat  bran 
on  the  other  hand  is  abundantly  supplied.  In  our  methods  of  manufacture, 
farm  animals  profit  at  the  expense  of  the  human  family. 

to  make  bone  and  teeth  and  flesh,  but  occur  in  the  aver- 
age menu  in  insufficient  quantities  for  the  teeth,  bone  and 
flesh  of  children  and  men. 


156.  A  ton  of  wheat  contains  36  pounds  of  mineral 
salts,  of  which  27  pounds  are  digested  when  eaten.  If 
made  into  flour  but  8  pounds  of  mineral  salts  are  left 
for  human  consumption,  of  which  amount  6  pounds  are 


HUMAN    FEEDING.  69 

digested.     What  is  the  percentage  of  digestible  mineral 
salts  removed  from  wheat  by  th-e  process  of  manufacture  ? 

157.  A  farmer  grows  ten  acres  of  wheat  which  pro- 
duces 25  bushels  an  acre.  This  wheat  analyzes  1.8 
pounds  of  mineral  salts  to  each  100  pounds.  How  many 
pounds  of  mineral  salts  are  produced  in  the  entire  crop? 

158.  If  this  wheat  is  eaten,  75  per  cent  of  the  mineral 
salts  will  be  digested.  How  many  pounds  will  be  digested  ? 

Ash    .^  %  \  I  Ash  \^t% 

Fat     2  %  \  /  Fat  Z^5% 

Water  \Z''i%        \  /  Water  9^o% 


Tis5ue-build,neMaterial     \  /    'nssue-buildin^ Material 


Energy-Giving  Material      J         I         Ener^y-jiving Material 
and    Fider  /         I  and  Fiber 

70  Vio  %  /  \  71  ^  % 


Baker's  or  Family  Flour  G^^sham  or  True  Whole  Di-f  ferent  Products 

Wheat  Flour  Derived  from  Milling  Wheat 

Different  Kinds  of  Flour  Compared. 

It  will  be  observed  that  much  of  the  ash  materials  is  removed   in  the  milling 

process. 

159.  If  this  wheat,  30  per  cent  of  which  is  bran  and 
other  by-products,  is  manufactured  into  flour,  what  quan- 
tity of  flour  is  made? 

160.  In  100  pounds  of  wheat  flour  there  are  0.6 
pounds  of  mineral  salts.  How  many  pounds  of  mineral 
salts  are  there  in  this  above  quantity  of  flour? 

161.  If  of  this  quantity  of  mineral  salts  75  per  cent  is 
digested,  how  many  pounds  are  digested  ? 

162.  What  is  the  difference  in  number  of  pounds  of 
mineral  3alts  produced  from  10  acres  of  wheat,  each  acre 


70  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

of  which  produces  25  bushels,  and  that  finally  available 
for  food  when  manufactured  into  flour? 

Important  truth.  While  the  manufacture  of  cereals 
may  increase  their  palatability,  it  is  also  true  that  the 
process  removes  much  of  the  mineral  salts  which  are 
essential  to  the  full  development  of  teeth,  bone,  and  tissue. 

Digestible  Mineral  Nutrients. 
Average  Per  cent,  or  pounds  in  100 


Beef, 

0.6 

Pork, 

•0.6 

Veal, 

0.7 

Mutton, 

0.5 

Poultry, 

0.5 

Milk, 

0.5 

Butter, 

2.3 

Eggs, 

0.7 

Flour, 

0.4 

Breads, 

0.8 

Vegetables, 

0.6 

Legumes — beans,  peas,  etc.. 

2.6 

Fruits, 

0.3 

163.  How  many  pounds  of  digestible  mineral  salts  in 
100  pounds  of  each  of  these  foods  ? 

164.  How  many  times  better  are  the  legumes  as  min- 
eral producers  than  beef  ?    Than  fruit  ?    Than  flour  ? 

165.  How  many  pounds  of  beef  are  required  to  fur- 
nish the  body  with  as  much  mineral  salts  as  would  be 
supplied  by  a  pound  of  beans  ? 

166.  How  much  flour  will  be  required  to  do  the  same  ? 

167.  How  many  pounds  of  bread  will  you  have  to  eat 
to  secure  the  quantity  of  mineral  salts  a  pound  of 
beans  would  furnish  ? 

168.  How  much  bread  and  milk  when  used  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  to  2  will  be  required  to  equal  a  pound  of 
beans  or  peas? 


HUMAN    FEEDING.  71 

169.  How  much  bread  and  butter  when  used  in  the 
proportion  of  1  to  10? 

Important  truth.  Mineral  salts  are  essential  for  body 
growth  and  good  health.  They  are  not  harmful,  even 
when  taken  in  excess  of  the  body's  actual  needs.  In 
planning  dietaries,  include  as  frequently  and  as  exten- 
sively as  possible  foods  containing  considerable  quantities 
of  digestible  ash.  This  is  neither  difficult  nor  costly,  since 
foods  carrying  this  nutrient  are  abundant  in  quantity,  rea- 
sonable in  price,  and  easily  prepared.  Many  of  these 
foods  are  appetizing  and  high  in  value  in  the  other  nutri- 
tive substances. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

DAIRY   PRODUCTS. 

The  products  of  the  dairy  form  an  important  part  of 
human  food.  Dairying  is  the  leading  animal  industry  of 
our  country,  and  must  continue  so  indefinitely.  Of  all 
animals  the  dairy  cow  is  the  most  economical  producer 
of  food  for  human  beings. 


Milk   Pail. 


A    common    practice    on    farms    where    sanitary 
milk  is   produced. 

170.  A  fattening  ox,  gaining  15  pounds  weekly,  yields 
1.13  pounds  of  protein  (lean  meat).  A  dairy  cow  during 
the  same  time,  and  yielding  20  pounds  of  milk  daily, 
yields  7.46  pounds  of  protein  in  milk.  How  many  times 
better  is  the  dairy  cow  as  a  protein  producer  than  the 
fattening  ox? 

171.  During  the  week  a  fattening  ox  stores  in  his 
body  .22  pounds  of  mineral  matter,  while  during  the 
same  time  a  dairy  cow  secretes  in  her  milk  a  total  of  1.35 

72 


DAIRY   PRODUCTS. 


73 


pounds.    The  mineral  matter  secured  by  the  cow  is  how 
many  times  that  secured  by  the  fattening  ox  ? 

172.  During  the  same  time  a  fattening  ox  stores  in  his 
body  9.53  pounds  of  fat,  and  the  cow  in  her  milk  secretes 
6.33  pounds  of  fat  and  8.32  pounds  of  milk  sugar. 
On  basis  of  heat  production,  how  much  more  valuable  is 
the  product  of  the  cow  than  that  of  the  fattening  ox  ? 


Dairy  Cows  at  Pasture. 

173.  Supplied  with  an  equal  amount  of  food,  a  fatten- 
ing ox  will  gain  3  pounds  in  live  weight  for  every  pound 
of  butter  fat  produced  by  the  cow.  When  fat  cattle  sell 
at  7  cents  per  pound,  and  butter  at  30  cents,  how  much  is 
the  difference  in  favor  of  the  dairy  cow  ? 

Milk.  Milk  is  Nature's  first  food  for  mammals.  This 
is  because  milk  is  a  perfect  food  for  the  young ;  it  contains 
water  to  slake  thirst,  ash  to  make  bone,  protein  to  make 
flesh  and  muscle,  fat  and  sugar  to  keep  the  body  warm 


74  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

and  to  furnish  energy  and  fat.  Fat  or  adipose  tissue  is 
Nature's  way  of  storing  energy  and  warmth  for  future 
use. 

A  good  dairy  cow  will  yield  in  one  year  6,600  pounds 
of  milk,  in  which  there  are : 

5,670  pounds  of  water, 
50  pounds  of  ash, 
230  pounds  of  casein  and  albumen  (protein), 
284  pounds  of  fat, 
376  pounds  of  milk  sugar. 
These  substances  are  practically  all  digestible. 

174.  What  is  the  percentage  of  water  in  milk? 

175.  The  percentage  of  ash? 

176.  The  percentage  of  protein  ? 

177.  The  percentage  of  fat?  Compare  these  values 
with  table  on  page  61. 

178.  The  percentage  of  milk  sugar? 

179.  How  many  pounds  of  water  in  a  ton  of  milk? 

180.  How  many  of  ash? 
181»     Haw  many  of  protein  ? 

182.  How  many  of  fat? 

183.  How  many  of  sugar  ? 

184.  When  a  cow  yields  daily  25  pounds  of  milk  which 
tests  4.3  per  cent  butter  fat,  what  quantity  of  butter  fat 
is  produced? 

185.  A  dairyman  has  25  dairy  cows  in  his  herd.  Ten 
yield  40  pounds  each  daily;  ten,  30  pounds;  and  five  20 
pounds.  The  milk  averages  3.8  per  cent  butter  fat.  What 
is  the  total  quantity  of  butter  fat  produced? 


DAIRY   PRODUCTS. 


75 


Important  truth.  Milk  varies  in  composition  with 
cows  of  different  breeds,  and  with  different  cows  of  the 
same  breed.  In  the  same  herd  the  milk  from  no  two  cows 
shows  exactly  the  same  percentage  of  butter  fat.  The 
milk  first  drawn  from  the  udder  is  very  low  in  fat;  the 
last  very  high.  It  follows  that  cows  should  be  selected 
not  only  because  of  their  yield  of  much  milk  during  the 
year,  but  also  because  of  their  ability  to  produce  milk 
with  a  high  per  cent  of  butter  fat. 

Variation  in  Test. 

186.  A  dairyman  has  a  herd  of  25  cows.  Ten  of  these 
cows  yield  40  pounds  each  daily ;  another  ten,  30  pounds ; 
the  remaining  five,  20  pounds. 
The  fat  test  of  the  first  group  is 
5.4  per  cent;  of  the  second,  4.5 
per  cent ;  of  the  third,  3.8  per  cent. 
What  quantity  of  fat  is  daily  pro- 
duced by  this  herd? 

187.  Suppose  the  fat  test  of 
the  first  group  were  3.8  per  cent 
and  of  the  third  5.4  per  cent,  the 
second  remaining  just  the  same. 
What  quantity  of  fat  would  be 
produced  daily? 

188.  When  butter  fat  is  worth 
25  cents  per  pound,  what  is  the 
money  value  of  this  difference  ? 


Babcock    Tester    Glass- 
ware. 
a,  milk  pipette;  b,  milk  bot- 
tle;    c,     cream     bottle;      d, 
graduate  glass   for  the  acid. 


189.  How  many  cows  of  the 
third  type  would  be  required  to 
equal  in  butter  production  10  cows  of  the  first  type  in 
problem  186? 

190.  A  certain  quantity  of  milk  testing  5  per  cent  con- 
tains 45  pounds  of  fat.    What  is  the  quantity  ? 


76  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

191.  Four  cans  contain  milk  as  follows:  100  pounds, 
and  tests  5.4  per  cent ;  80  pounds,  4.3  per  cent ;  84  pounds, 
3.8  per  cent ;  and  180  pounds,  3.1  per  cent.  What  per  cent 
is  the  mixture  ? 

192.  In  a  can  is  a  certain  quantity  of  milk  that  tests 
5  per  cent ;  in  another  can  is  a  certain  quantity  that  tests 
3  per  cent.  The  amount  of  butter  fat  in  both  cans  is  40 
pounds,  one-fourth  of  which  is  in  the  first  can.  How 
much  milk  is  there  in  each  can? 


Babcock  Milk  Tester. 
A  small  tester  for  four  samples.    An  outfit  like  this  ought  to  be  in  every  school. 

The  Babcock  Tester.  The  Babcock  test  was  discov- 
ered by  Dr.  Babcock  of  Madison.  Wisconsin.  The  test 
is  made  as  follows :  By  use  of  a  pipette  17.6  cubic  centi- 
meters of  milk  are  put  into  a  test  bottle,  then  sulphuric 
acid  of  the  correct  strength  is  measured  in  a  graduate, 
and  17.5  cubic  centimeters  of  it  carefully  poured  down  the 
side  of  the  test  bottle  into  the  milk.  The  acid  and  the  milk 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  by  being  gently  shaken  with 
a  rotary  motion.  The  mixture  becomes  hot  and  has  a 
dark  color.     The  bottles  are  put  in  the  tester,  and  the 


DAIRY   PRODUCTS.  77 

machine  is  rapidly  rotated  for  five  or  six  minutes. 
Enough  warm  water  is  then  added  to  each  IxDttle  to  bring 
the  fat  up  into  the  neck.  The  bottles  are  whirled  again 
for  two  or  three  minutes,  after  which  they  are  removed. 
The  amount  of  fat  can  be  read  in  per  cent  on  the  neck 
of  the  bottles. 

193.  A  dairy  farmer  has  in  his  herd  two  cows,  each 
producing  during  the  year  6,000  pounds  of  milk.  By 
using  this  Babcock  tester  he  finds  that  the  test  of  one  is 
3.2  per  cent ;  and  of  the  other  5.8  per  cent.  What  is  the 
difference  in  fat  produced  during  the  year  by  the  two 
cows  ? 

194.  At  25  cents  per  pound,  what  is  the  money  value 
of  the  butter  fat  yielded  by  the  first  cow.    By  the  second  ? 

195.  This  same  farmer  finds  that  last  year  one  of  his 
cows  gave  8,000  pounds  of  rnilk,  the  test  of  which  was 
3.2  per  cent ;  another  cow  gave  5,000  pounds,  which  tested 
5.6  per  cent.  Which  is  the  more  valuable  cow  ?  What  is 
the  butter  fat  difference  ? 

Important  truth.  The  value  of  a  cow  depends  upon 
her  ability  to  produce  a  large  quantity  of  milk  that  shows 
a  high  fat  test.  Neither  the  quantity  nor  kind  of  feed 
influences  the  fat  per  cent.  It  may  influence  the  quantity 
produced,  but  not  the  quality.  The  latter  is  a  fixed  char- 
acter with  the  cow  just  as  color  or  breed  is  fixed.  The 
Babcock  tester  enables  the  owner  to  know  the  quality  of 
the  milk  for  every  cow. 

Relation  of  fat  to  butter.  The  churn  collects  fat 
globules  into  butter.  When  thus  manufactured  the  com- 
mercial product  contains  fat,  water,  salt,  milk,  sugar, 
and  some  casein.  Hence  the  fat  when  churned  produces 
on  an  average  one-sixth  more  butter  than  the  fat  content 
of  milk  or  cream. 


78 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


196.  In  50  pounds  of  butter,  how  much  butter  fat? 
Other  matter  ? 

197.  A  certain  cow  last  year  yielded  5,000  pounds  of 

milk  that  tested  5.4  per  cent  butter  fat.    At  25  cents  per 

pound,  what  was  the  value  of  the  butter  she  produced  ? 

Process : 

5,000  X  .054  =  270 

270  X    1-6  =    45 

Butter  produced  270  -j-  45  =  315  pounds. 

315  at  25  cents  =  $78.75  value  of  butter. 


Churning  in  the  Olden  Days. 

Such  primitive  methods   are  seldom  seen   in  these  days.     Modern  churns  have 

driven  these  hand  methods  largely  into  oblivion. 

198.  The  owner  of  this  cow  had  another  that  yielded 
3,850  pounds  of  milk,  which  tested  4.8  per  cent  fat.  What 
was  the  value  of  the  butter  this  one  produced  at  25  cents 
per  pound  ? 

199.  Another  cow  in  this  herd  yielded  4,300  pounds 
of  milk  that  tested  3  per  cent  butter  fat.  At  25  cents  per 
pound  what  was  the  value  of  the  butter  produced? 


DAIRY    PRODUCTS. 


79 


200.  The  total  quantity  of  butter  this  herd  produced 
during  the  year  was  5,760  pounds.  The  average  test  of 
the  milk  for  the  year  was  4.8  per  cent.  How  much  milk 
was  produced  during  the  year  ? 

201.  The  butter  at  25  cents  per  pound  averaged  $60 
for  every  cow  in  the  herd.    How  many  cows  in  the  herd  ? 

202.  The  preceding  year  the  milk  from  this  herd  aver- 
aged 245  pounds  for  each  day  of  the  year,  and  made  an 
average  test  of  4.2  per  cent.  How  much  butter  was  made 
during  the  year  ? 


Modern  Cream  Separator. 

With  this  apparatus  practically  all  the  cream  is  obtained  from  milk, 
time,  labor  and  waste. 


Cream. 


There  are  three  methods  of  creaming: 

Shallow  .s^//m5r__  Skimming  cream  from  shallow  pans  or  crocks. 

Deep  setting Skimming  cream  from  deep  cans. 

Centrifugal...^. -Skimmm^  by  the  separator. 


80 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


Some  fat  is  left  in  the  skim  milk  whatever  the  method 

employed.    This  amount  is, 

Shallow  setting,  0.8     per  cent. 

Deep  setting,  0.2    per  cent 

Separator,  0.05  per  cent. 

203.  What  is  the  loss  of  butter  fat  in  500  pounds  of 
skim  milk  when  shallow  setting  is  followed  ? 

204.  When  deep  setting  is  followed? 


Combined  Churn  and  Butter  Worker. 
This  is  of  creamery  size  and  a  kind  frequently  used  in  large  butter  factories. 


205.  When  the  separator  is  used? 

206.  What  is  the  loss  of  butter  during  one  year  when 
110  pounds  of  skim  milk  is  daily  produced,  the  separator 
being  used  ? 

207.  When  deep  setting  cans  are  used  ? 

208.  When  shallow  setting  pans  or  crocks  are  use4  ? 


DAIRY   PRODUCTS.  81 

209.  At  25  cents  per  pound  for  butter,  what  is  the 
yearly  money  loss  with  shallow  pans  or  crocks? 

210.  With  deep  setting  cans  ? 

211.  With  the  separator? 

212.  In  1,610  pounds  of  skim  milk,  testing  .12  of  one 
per  cent,  how  much  fat  is  lost  ? 

213.  How  much  butter  may  be  made  from  460  pounds 
of  cream  that  tests  33  per  cent  fat  ? 

214.  Cream  that  tested  22  per  cent  fat  was  made  into 
84  pounds  of  butter.    How  much  cream  was  there? 

215.  How  many  pounds  of  25  per  cent  cream  may  be 

taken  from  500  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk  ? 

Process : 

500  X    04  =  20 

25  per  cent  cream  means  25  pounds  of  fat  in  100,  or  in.  1  pound 
.25  of  1  pound  fat. 

20  -H  .25  —  80 

Thus  80  pounds  of  25  per  cent  cream  may  be  made  from  500 
pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk. 

216.  How  many  pounds  of  20  per  cent  cream  may  be 
taken  from  600  pounds  of  6  per  cent  milk  ?     180. 

217.  How  many  pounds  of  30  per  cent  cream  may  be 
taken  from  600  pounds  of  3  per  cent  milk?    60. 

218.  A  dairyman  sent  to  market  100  pounds  of  25  per 
cent  cream.  From  what  quantity  of  4  per  cent  milk  was 
the  cream  taken  ?    Ans.  625. 

219.  His  neighbor  sends  with  him  100  pounds  of  30 
per  cent  cream  which  had  been  taken  from  625  pounds  of 
milk.  What  was  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  this  milk?  4.8. 
How  much  25  per  cent  cream  might  have  been  made? 
(120  pounds,)     How  rnuch  20  per  cent?     (150  pounds.) 


82 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


Butter. 

The  churn  gathers  the  fat  globules  together  in  a  mass 
called  butter.  The  average  composition  of  butter  is  as 
follows : 


Water, 

Fat, 

Casein  (protein). 

Salt, 


Per  cent. 

13 

83 

1 

3 


220. 
221. 


In  a  ton  of  butter  how  many  pounds  of  water? 
Of  fat? 


222.     Of  protein? 


Rounding  Out  the  Cheese. 


One  of  the  final  steps  in  cheese  making  is  pressing  the  cakes.     They  are  now 
ready   for  storing   and   ripening. 

223.  Of  salt? 

224.  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  butter? 

Important  truth.  In  churning  the  temperature  of 
cream  may  vary  from  50  degrees  to  66  degrees.  When 
the  temperature  is  higher  than  this,  more  fat  is  left  in  the 


DAIRY   PRODUCTS.  83 

buttermilk  and  the  butter  is  soft  and  of  inferior  quality. 
Thin  cream  churns  more  slowly  than  thick  cream.  In 
making  butter,  churning  should  be  stopped  when  the 
granules  are  about  the  size  of  large  grains  of  wheat. 

225.  When  cream  is  churned  at  a  temperature  of  from 
50  degrees  to  60  degrees,  0.2  per  cent  of  fat  is  left  in  the 
buttermilk;  when  churned  at  a  temperature  of  from  75 
degrees  to  80  degrees  the  buttermilk  tests  0.9  per  cent. 
What  is  the  difference  or  loss  for  a  herd  of  cows  when 
12,640  pounds  of  buttermilk  are  made  annually? 

226.  At  25  cents  per  pound  for  butter,  what  is  the 
amount  of  this  yearly  loss  ? 

Cheese. 

This  product  of  the  dairy  is  made  by  coagulating  milk 
with  rennet,  a  ferment  of  the  calf's  stomach.  ^lilk  that 
is  rich  in  fat,  makes  more  and  richer  cheese. 

Full  cream  cheese  contains — 

Per  cent. 
Water,  37 

Fat,  34 

Casein,  24 

Ash,  5 

227.  How  much  water  in  a  ton  of  cheese? 

228.  Fat? 

229.  Casein? 

230.  Ash? 

231.  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  cheese  ? 

232.  When  cheese  sells  for  15  cents  per  pound,  what 
is  the  value  of  a  ton  of  fat  and  casein  ? 

233.  Ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  nutrients  in  cheese  is 
digested.  In  100  pounds,  how  many  pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients  (fat  and  casein)  are  there? 


84  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

234.  When  cheese  sells  for  15  cents  per  pound,  what 
is  the  cost  of  1  pound  of  digestible  nutrients  ? 

235.  Beef  loin  contains  15.6  per  cent  of  digestible  pro- 
tein and  16.6  per  cent  digestible  fat.  When  sold  at  25 
cents  per  pound,  what  is  the  cost  of  a  pound  of  digestible 
nutrients  ? 

236.  How  many  more  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients 
in  a  dollar's  worth  of  cheese  than  in  a  dollar's  worth  of 
beef  loin? 


In  the  Curing  Room. 
One  way  of  storing  cheese  during  the  ripening  period. 

Important  truth.  From  9  to  I2  pounds  of  milk  are 
required  to  make  1  pound  of  cheese.  From  100  pounds 
of  milk,  containing  3  per  cent  fat  and  2  per  cent  casein, 
8.8  pounds  of  cheese  may  be  made;  from  100  pounds  of 
milk  containing  4.5  per  cent  fat  and  2.7  per  cent  casein 
11.7  pounds  of  cheese  may  be  made. 

Marketing. 

Milk  may  be  marketed  as  milk,  butter,  cream,  or  cheese. 


DAIRY   PRODUCTS.  85 

The  form  in  which  it  should  be  marketed  is  governed  by 
the  distance  from  market,  the  relative  current  prices  of 
the  different  products,  the  breed  of  cows,  the  inclination 
of  the  owner,  etc. 

237.  What  is  the  value  of  100  pounds  4.2  per  cent 
milk  when  sold  at  4  cents  per  pound,  i.  e.,  8  cents  per 
quart  ? 

238.  What  is  the  value  of  cream,  testing  30  per  cent 
fat,  in  100  pounds  of  4.2  per  cent  milk,  when  sold  at  20 
cents  per  pint  (1  pound)  ? 

239.  What  is  the  value  of  the  cheese  made  from  100 
pounds  of  4.2  per  cent  milk  (nine  pounds  of  this  grade 
of  milk  makes  1  pound  of  cheese)  when  sold  at  12  cents 
per  pound  ? 

240.  What  is  the  value  of  the  butter  made  from  100 
pounds  of  4.2  per  cent  milk  when  sold  at  25  cents  per 
pound  ? 

Important  truth.  This  comparison  does  not  necessa- 
rily mean  that  milk  production  is  more  profitable  than 
butter,  cheese,  or  cream  production.  It  costs  more  to  de- 
liver milk  to  the  consumer  than  the  other  products.  Then, 
too,  a  good  deal  of  fertility  is  permanently  lost  from  the 
soil  by  the  sale  of  milk.  When  butter  is  made  all  skim 
milk  and  buttermilk  is  left  on  the  farm  and  are  available 
for  the  feeding  of  pigs,  calves,  and  poultry — items  of 
great  importance  in  the  wise  management  of  a  dairy  farm. 

241.  When  milk,  testing  4  per  cent  fat,  costs  $1.60 
per  hundred  pounds,  what  is  the  value  of  20  per  cent 
cream  on  basis  of  fat  content? 

Process : 

In  100  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk  costing  $1.60,  there  are  4 
pounds  of  fat      Since  4  pounds  of  fat  cost  $1.60,  fat  costs  40 


86  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

cents  per  pound.  In  100  pounds  of  20  per  cent  cream  there  are  20 
pounds  of  fat.  Then  20  pounds  of  fat  at  40  cents  per  pound  will 
cost  .40  X  20  =  $8.00— this  is,  therefore,  the  value  of  100  pounds 
of  20  per  cent  cream. 

Note. — A  gallon  of  30  per  cent  cream  weighs  8  pounds;  20  per 
cent  cream  8.3  pounds ;  4  per  cent  milk  8.55  pounds. 

242.  When  milk,  testing  4  per  cent  fat,  costs  $1.60  per 
hundred  pounds,  what  is  the  value  of  one  gallon  of  20 
per  cent  cream  on  basis  of  fat  content? 

243.  A  dairyman  sells  his  milk,  testing  4.5  per  cent,  at 


Bottled  Milk  Ready  for  Market. 

When   milk  is  bottled   immediately   after  cooling   and   then  kept  cool   it  remains 
sweet  and  pure  much  longer  than  if  marketed  in  large  insanitary  cans. 

20  cents  per  gallon.  What  price  should  he  receive  per 
gallon  for  30  per  cent  cream,  so  that  the  value  of  the  fat 
in  this  cream  may  be  the  same  as  that  it  now  has  in  milk  ? 

244.  When  milk,  testing  3  per  cent  fat,  costs  15  cents 
per  gallon,  on  basis  of  fat  content,  what  should  4  per  cent 
milk  cost  ?    Five  per  cent  milk  ?    Twenty  per  cent  cream  ? 

245.  When  cream,  testing  20  per  cent  fat,  costs  $1  a 


DAIRY   PRODUCTS.  87 

gallon,  what  should  cream  testing  30  per  cent  fat  cost  a 
gallon  ? 

Standardized  milk.  Milk  standardized  to  a  certain 
per  cent  fat. 

246.  A  dairyman  has  322  pounds  of  milk  which  test 

4.3  per  cent  fat.     He  desires  to  standardize  this  to  5  per 

cent  fat.     How  much  5  per  cent  milk  will  this  quantity 

make? 

Process : 

322  X  4.3  =  13.8  pounds  fat. 

13.8  -^-  .05  =  276  pounds  5  per  cent  milk. 

This  means  that  when  322  pounds  of  4.3  per  cent  milk 
are  standardized  to  5  per  cent  milk,  276  pounds  will  result. 

247.  Another  dairyman  has  322  pounds  of  milk  which 
tests  3.2  per  cent  fat.  When  this  is  standardized  to  5 
per  cent  fat,  what  quantity  will  result  ? 

248.  A  farmer  has  separated  his  milk  and  finds  that  he 
has  60  pounds  of  30  per  cent  cream.  How  many  pounds 
of  skim  milk  will  be  required  to  make  this  into  milk  that 
will  test  5  per  cent  butter  fat  ? 

249.  To  250  pounds  of  3.2  per  cent  milk,  how  much 
30  per  cent  cream  must  be  added  to  make  a  5  per  cent 
milk?  Ans.     18  pounds. 


CHAPTER  V. 
SOIL. 

That  part  of  the  solid  surface  of  the  earth  in  which 
plants  grow  is  known  as  the  soil.  In  semi-technical 
language,  the  uppermost  part  is  called  the  soil  and  the 
underpart  the  subsoil. 

The  soil  contains  plant  food  and  the  moisture  in  which 
this  food  must  be  dissolved  before  it  can  become  a  fac- 
tor in  the  growth  of  plants;  it  affords  a  foothold  for 
plants — a  place  in  which  they  may  grow ;  it  supplies  pro- 
tection, air,  agreeable  temperature,  and  other  congenial 
surroundings,  that  plant  roots  may  be  at  home  in  it.    ''The 


GcTTiNO    SaMPLLS    of    SoiL     FROM     FiELDS. 

No  two  soils  are  just  alike.  Their  water  content  also  varies.  By  means  of 
simple  apparatus  as  shown  in  the  picture,  samples  may  be  obtained  from  any 
depth  and  the  amount  of  water  in  tkem  determined. 


SOIL.  89 

soil  is  the  ultimate  employer  of  all  industry — the  source 
of  all  wealth  and  the  universal  banker." — Hill. 

250.  A  sample  of  soil  having  a  surface  area  of  one 
square  foot  and  a  depth  of  12  inches,  was  dug  from  a 
clover  field  and  weighed.  The  upper  6  inches  weighed 
60.1  pounds;  the  lower,  61.4  pounds.  These  two  layers 
were  then  dried  and  weighed,  and  the  following  weights 
were  obtained:  for  the  first,  51.1  pounds;  for  the  second, 
52.7  pounds.  The  moisture  was  what  per  cent  of  the  dried 
weight  in  each  layer? 

251.  What  was  the  per  cent  of  moisture  in  the  12- 
inch  section  of  soil  ? 

252.  What  is  the  weight  of  an  acre  of  the  upper  6 
inches  of  this  soil  after  being  dried? 

Process:    Multiply  number  of  square  feet  in  an  acre  by  51.1 

253.  What  is  the  weight  of  the  water  contained  in  an 
acre  of  the  upper  6  inches  of  soil  ?    Of  the  lower  6  inches  ? 

254.  The  water  in  the  upper  6-inch  layer  would  have 
what  depth  if  extracted  and  spread  evenly  over  the  same 
area? 

Process : 

1.  Divide  the  weight  of  water  per  square  foot  of  surface  area 
by  62.5  (weight  of  1  cubic  foot  of  water).  This  will  give  the 
depth  in  feet.    9  -^  62.5  =  0.14  feet. 

2.  Multiply  quotient  by  12  (inches  in  a  foot)  to  obtain  the 
depth  in  inches.    0.14  X  12  =  1.7  inches. 

Note. — This  is  equivalent  to  dividing  by  5.2,  since 
62.5  ^  12  =  5.2 

255;  How  many  inches  depth  of  water  in  the  second 
6  inches  of  soil? 

256.  Assuming  no  loss  by  evaporation  or  drainage,  to 
how  many  inches  of  rainfall  does  the  water  in  the  12-inch 
depth  of  soil  correspond  ? 


90  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

257.  This  soil  was  analyzed  by  a  chemist  who  found 
that  it  contained  in  the  upper  layer  0.162  per  cent  of  nitro- 
gen, 0.249  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  0.386  per  cent 
of  potash.  How  many  pounds  per  acre  of  each  of  these 
elements  of  fertility  did  this  upper  layer  contain? 

258.  This  chemist  also  analyzed  the  second  layer  and 
found  0.092  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  0.134  per  cent  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  0.224  per  cent  of  potash.  How  many 
pounds  of  each  did  this  second  layer  contain? 


Getting  Humus  into  the  Soil. 

The  rape  crop  seeded  at  the  last  cultivation  of  the  corn  is  now  being  plowed 
under  to  keep  up  the  humus  supply  of  the  land.  Cowpeas,  rye  and  crimson 
clover  are  other  good  crops  to  use  for  the  same  purpose. 

259.  What  was  the  number  of  pounds  each  of  nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  per  acre  in  the  12  inches 
of  soil? 

260.  A  crop  of  wheat  which  yields  30  bushels  per  acre 
removes  from  the  soil  by  chemical  analysis,  as  indicated, 
48  pounds  of  nitrogen,  21.1  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid, 
and  29.8  pounds  of  potash.  When  wheat  yields  at  this 
rate,  how  many  crops  will  the  nitrogen  in  this  soil  supply? 


SOIL.  91 

261.  How  many  crops  will  the  phosphoric  acid  sup- 
ply? 

262.  How  rnany  crops  will  the  potash  supply? 

263.  A  crop  of  oats  yielding  60  bushels  per  acre,  re- 
quires of  nitrogen  73.3  pounds,  of  phosphoric  acid  25.7 
pounds,  of  potash  61.5  pounds.  How  many  crops  of  such 
oats  will  the  nitrogen  content  of  this  soil  supply  ?  Phos- 
phoric acid?    Potash? 

Important  truth.  Nature  has  not  stored  these  ele- 
ments in  the  soil  in  such  a  form  as  to  be  wholly  plant 
food.  Only  a  small  percentage  of  any  one  is  directly 
available  at  any  time.  Available  plant  food  is  readily  lost 
by  leaching  and  drainage.  Plence,  if  all  the  elements  had 
been  in  an  available  form  originally  the  soil  would  have 
lost  its  fertility  ages  ago.  Great  quantities  of  plant  food 
are  locked  up  in  the  soil  in  such  forms  that  they  can  be 
made  available  only  by  good  tillage,  crop  rotation,  winter- 
growing  crops,  humus,  stable  manure,  and  legumes.  These 
together  form  the  key  which  unlocks  the  door  to  Nature's 
richest  storehouse. 

Moisture  of  the  soil.  Water  is  important  to  plant 
growth.  It  dissolves  plant  food  and  carries  it  to  all  parts 
of  the  plant  body.  Crops  often  fail  or  are  greatly  in- 
jured by  an  insufficient  supply  of  moisture  in  the  soil. 
How  to  keep  enough  water  in  the  soil  during  the  grow- 
ing season  for  all  the  needs  of  the  growing  plant  is  a  very 
important  problem. 

Saving  moisture  by  plowing. 

264.  Samples  of  soil  from  a  field  partially  plowed 
were  taken  to  a  depth  of  12  inches,  two  weeks  after  plow- 
ing was  done.  The  sample  taken  from  the  plowed  land 
showed  13.87  per  cent  of  water  in  the  soil,  while  the  sam- 


SOIL. 


93 


pie  taken  from  the  unplowed  land  showed  10.58  per  cent. 
This  soil  when  dried  weighed  80  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot. 
How  many  more  tons  of  water  per  acre  are  there  in  the 
plowed  land  than  in  the  unplowed  land  ? 

Saving  moisture  by  cultivation.  The  observed  dif- 
ference in  the  moisture  content  of  a  field  of  corn  for  one 
season  was  as  follows : 


Cultivation  Controls  Water  Content. 

Kind  of  cultivation 

1st  foot 
per  cent. 

2d  foot 
per  cent. 

3d  foot 
per  cent. 

4th  foot 
per  cent. 

Cultivated  3  inches  deep 

Cultivated  1  inch  deep 

Difference 

23.14 
22.70 

.44 

23.30 
21.08 

2.22 

21.94 
19.65 

2.29 

22.46 
19.58 

2.88 

Plowing  Levees   for  Rice. 


94  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

265.  How  many  more  tons  of  water  per  acre  were  held 
in  these  four  feet  of  soil  (dry  weight,  80  pounds  per 
cubic  foot),  by  the  deeper  mulch  (cultivated  3  inches), 
than  by  the  more  shallow  mulch  (cultivated  1  inch)  ? 

266.  How  many  more  inches  of  water  in  the  deep- 
mulched  than  the  shallow-mulched  land? 

267.  On  July  26,  1900,  samples  of  soils  were  taken 
from  three  plats  of  land  on  which  corn  was  growing. 
The  observed  percentages  of  moisture  content  of  the  soil 
from  these  plats  were  as  follows : 

Per  cent. 

1.  No  cultivation — weeds  allowed  to  grow,        12.55 

2.  Ordinary  cultivation — some  weeds,  18.80 

3.  Level  cultivation — frequent  and  shallow,        22.64 

How  many  tons  of  water  per  acre  on  land  in  corn, 
where  no  cultivation  was  given,  and  weeds  were  allowed 
to  grow  ? 

268.  How  many  tons  where  ordinary  cultivation  was 
given  ? 

269.  How  many  tons  where  level,  shallow,  and  fre- 
quent cultivation  is  given? 

270.  What  is  the  percentage  of  difference,  favorable 
to  ordinary  cultivation  over  no  cultivation  ? 

271.  The  percentage  of  difference  in  favor  of  level 
cultivation  over  no  cultivation  ? 

Growing  crops  take  water  from  the  soil.  Often  early 
spring  crops  are  harvested  and  the  same  land  is  planted 
in  corn  or  other  cultivated  crops.  Or  again  a  crop  of 
weeds  may  be  permitted  to  grow  on  ground  to  be  used 
later  for  a  cultivated  crop.    This  second  crop  may  suffer 


SOIL. 


95 


on  account  of  the  removal  of  water  by  the  preceding  crop. 
This  fact  is  illustrated  in  the  table  below. 


Plants  Take  Water  From  the  Soil. 

Nature  of  land 

12  inches 

12-18  inches 

18-24  inches 

Ground  not  planted 

per  cent. 

24.53 
10.59 

13.94 

per  cent. 

20.16 
15.66 

4.50 

per  cent. 
17.74 

Ground  in  clover 

14.73 

3.01 

Two  Ways  of  Growing  Corn. 

Plot  at  right   received  ordinary  cultivation,  and  yielded  64  bushels  to  the  acre. 
Plot  at  left  received  no  cultivation  and  yielded  4  bushels  an  acre. 


272.  How  many  tons  of  water  in  the  two   feet  of 
ground  not  planted  ? 

273.  How  many  in  the  ground  in  clover? 

274.  On  this  basis  how  many  tons  of  water  per  acre 
were  removed  by  the  growing  clover  crops  ? 


96 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


275.  How  many  more  inches  of  rainfall  will  be  needed 
on  the  clover  plot  than  on  the  other  ? 

Influence  of  method  on  producing  power  of  soils. 

Soils  differ  in  producing  power.  The  same  soil  often  is 
influenced  in  productive  power  by  a  change  in  the  method 
of  tillage,  cultivation,  and  treatment. 

The  following  results  were  obtained  during  three 
years'  growth  of  crops  showing  the  influence  of  thorough 
tillage. 

Tillage  Increases  Crop  Yields. 


Methods  of  tillage 

Corn,  1899 

Barley,  1900 

Timothy  and 
clover.  1901 

pounds  per  acre 

pounds  per  acre 

pounds  per  acre 

Ordinary — spring  plowed 

Fall  plowed 

Fall  and  spring  plowed 

3,300 
3,800 
6,900 

1,500 
2,050 
2,750 

1,120 
1.480 
2,240 

276.  How  many  tons  of  forage  were  produced  during 
the  three  years  where  spring  plowing  was  done  ? 

277.  Where  fall  plowing  was  done? 

278.  Where  both  spring  and  fall  plowing  were  done? 

279.  What  is  the  per  cent  of  increase  of  fall  plowing 
over  spring  plowing? 

280.  What  is  the  per  cent  of  increase  of  fall  and 
spring  plowing  over  spring  plowing  only  ? 

281.  Twenty  acres  of  land,  fall  and  spring  plowed,  are 
the  equivalent  of  how  many  acres  of  land  spring  plowed 
only?    Are  there  other  savings? 


SOIL. 


97 


Important  truth.  Thorough  tillage  is  helpful  for 
most  soils.  Old,  dead,  wornout  lands  are  especially  bene- 
fited by  deep,  effective  stirring.  Water  enters  more 
easily ;  air  more  freely ;  plant  food  is  made  available ;  the 
soil  becomes  open  and  more  porous ;  the  roots  have  larger 
and  better  pasture  grounds.  All  these  influences  con- 
tribute to  soil  activity  and  soil  productivity. 


The  Plow  Comes  First  in  All  Tillage  Operations. 

To   do   good   work   the   plow   must   turn   the   furrow   slice,   cover  the   grass   and 
vegetable  matter  and  leave  the  surface  pulverized  and  mellow. 


Protected  farm  manures  influence  the  producing 
power  of  soils.  An  untold  quantity  of  fertility  is  lost 
each  year  because  of  poor  methods  in  caring  for  and 
preserving  farm-yard  manures.     This  fact  is  illustrated 


98  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

by  an  experiment  made  at  one  of  Our  experiment  stations, 
as  follows : 

Unprotected  Manure  Versus  Protected  Manure. 


Method 

Pounds  green  corn 

21,520 

14,320 

282.  How  many  tons  increase  in  yield  of  corn  from 
land  fertilized  with  stable  manure  which  has  been  pro- 
tected from  rain  and  wash? 

283.  What  is  the  percentage  increase  secured  by  pro- 
tection of  manure  from  rain  and  wash  ? 


12.15 


$2.96 


1480 


Manure  exposed  in  yard. 


Stall  manure. 


Stall  manure  and  acid  phosphate 
Increasing  Value  of  Manure. 


When  stable   manure   is   treated  with    acid   phosphate   and   kept  under  cover 
fertilizing  value  is  increased. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

FIELD  CROPS. 

The  commanding  position  occupied  in  the  world  today 
by  American  agriculture,  is  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the 
new  plants  native  to  this  country,  and  to  the  old  ones 
which  so  readily  adapt  themselves  to  our  soil  and  climate 
conditions.  This  list  includes  cotton,  corn,  potatoes,  to- 
bacco, wheat,  oats,  sugar  cane,  and  many  grasses  and 
other  crops.  Without  our  cotton,  corn,  wheat,  and  other 
agricultural  exports  the  balance  of  trade  would  be  against 
us,  and  the  world  would  be  denied  its  present  abundance 
of  cheap  clothing  and  food. 

Statistics  of  Corn. 

284.  The  total  production  of  corn  in  1889  was  2,122,- 
000,000  bushels ;  in  1899,  2.666,000,000  bushels,  and  in 
1909,  2,552,000,000.  What  was  the  per  cent  of  increase 
or  decrease  during  each  ten  years  ?    The  twenty  years  ? 

285.  The  value  of  the  1899  corn  crop  was  $828,000,- 
000,  and  of  the  1909  crop  $1,439,000,000.  What  was  the 
average  price  per  bushel  for  each  year?  Ans.  31  cents 
in  1899,  and  56  cents  in  1909. 

286.  The  average  yield  of  corn  per  acre  in  1899  was 
28.1  bushels ;  and  in  1909,  25.9  bushels.  How  many  acres 
were  in  corn  each  year?  Per  cent  decrease  in  yield  per 
acre? 

287.  A  South  Carolina  farmer  in  1899  produced  255 
bushels  of  corn  on  one  acre  of  land.  How  many  times 
greater  is  this  yield  than  the  average  for  the  United  States 
for  the  same  year  ?    Than  for  1909  ? 


m 


FIELD   CROPS.  '  '  '        *     '    "     J()j' 

288.  What  would  have  been  the  total  yield  in  the 
United  States  in  1909,  had  every  acre  of  corn  produced 
255  bushels?    Its  value? 

289.  What  was  the  average  value  of  corn  per  acre  in 
1899  ?    In  1909  ? 

290.  The  total  number  of  farms  in  the  United  States 
in  1899  was  5,740,000.  Corn  was  grown  on  88.6  per  cent 
of  these  farms.  On  how  many  was  corn  grown  that 
year?  Ans.   About  5,100,000. 

291.  What  was  the  average  production  of  corn  per 
farm  that  year? 

292.  What  was  the  average  value  of  corn  per  farm 
that  year  ? 

Statistics  of  Wheat. 

293.  The  total  production  of  wheat  in  1899  was  658,- 
500,000  bushels  and  in  1909,  683,400,000  bushels.  What 
was  the  per  cent  increase?  The  1899  crop  was  an  increase 
of  40.6  per  cent  over  the  previous  decade.  What  was  the 
production  in  bushels  in  1889  ? 

294.  The  value  of  the  1899  wheat  crop  was  $370,000,- 
000 ;  the  1909,  $657,700,000.  What  was  the  average  price 
per  bushel  in  1899  ?    In  1909  ? 

295.  The  average  yield  per  acre  was  12.5  bushels  in 
1899,  and  15.4  bushels  in  1909.  How  many  acres  of 
wheat  were  grown  each  year?  What  was  the  per  cent 
of  increase  per  acre? 

296.  It  is  now  claimed  by  experts  that  the  average 
yield  per  acre  of  corn  and  wheat  can  be  doubled.  What 
would  this  have  added  to  the  wealth  of  the  country  in 
1909  ?    In  ten  years  at  the  same  rate  ? 


102     '  "    """fa'rM  arithmetic. 

297.  What  was  the  average  value  of  wheat  per  acre 
ml899?    In  1909? 

298.  The  total  number  of  farms  in  the  United  States 
in  1899  was  5,740,000.  Wheat  was  grown  on  35.8  per 
cent  of  these  farms.  On  how  many  was  wheat  grown 
that  year? 


Cotton  Ready  for  the  Pickers. 
While  the  average  yield  of  cotton   is   about  one-third  of   a   bale  to   the   acre, 
this  field  yielded  at  the  rate  of  three  bales  to  the  acre.     It  shows  what  proper 
fertilizing,  tillage  and  culture  will  do. 

299.  What  was  the  average  production  of  wheat  per 
farm  that  year? 

300.  The  average  value  of  wheat  per  farm  that  year? 
Per  acre? 

301.  The  population  of  this  country  in  1910  was 
92.000,000 ;  the  consumption  from  the  1909  crop  of  wheat 
by  this  population  that  year  was  596,000,000  bushels. 
What  was  the  consumption  of  wheat  per  capita  ? 


FIELD   CROPS.  103 

302.  It  takes  4.77  bushels  of  wheat  to  make  one  bar- 
rel of  flour.  What  was  the  consumption  of  Hour  per 
capita  that  year? 

303.  For  seed  in  1910,  1.4  bushels  of  wheat  were  used 
per  acre.  What  was  the  consumption  for  this  purpose, 
assuming  the  same  acreage  as  in  1909  ? 

304.  How  many  bushels  of  the  1909  wheat  crop  were 
used  for  food  and  seed? 

305.  This  consumption  equals  how  many  bushels  per 
inhabitant  in  1910  ? 

306.  How  much  of  the  1909  wheat  was  available  for 
export  ? 

307.  If  all  of  it  had  been  exported,  what  would  have 
been  its  value  ? 

Statistics  of  Cotton. 

308.  The  production  of  lint  cotton  in  1899  was  9,435,- 
000  bales  of  495  pounds ;  in  1909,  10.640,000  bales.  How 
many  pounds  did  each  crop  make  ? 

309.  The  total  acreage  in  cotton  in  1909  was  32,044,- 
000.  What  was  the  average  production  in  pounds  per 
acre? 

310.  The  average  production  in  bales  per  acre  ? 

311.  The  value  of  the  commercial  cotton  crop  in  1899 
was  $323,800,000,  and  in  1909,  $703,600,030.  What  was 
the  average  value  per  bale  each  year? 

312.  The  average  value  per  pound?    Per  acre? 

313.  The  total  number  of  farms  in  the  United  States 
in  1909  was  6,362,000,  and  the  total  value  of  all  the  crops 


104 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


was  $5,487,000,000.    What  was  the  value  per  farm  ?    The 
cotton  was  what  per  cent  of  this  total  value  ? 

314.  What  was  the  production  of  cottonseed  in  1909, 
estimating  1,000  pounds  of  seed  to  each  bale  of  cotton  ? 

315.  The  cottonseed  in  1909  was  valued  at  $121,000,- 
000.  What  was  this  per  ton?  Per  pound?  Per  acre? 
Total,  lint  and  seed,  per  acre  ? 

Statistics  of  Cereal  Crops. 

Every  ten  years  the  census  bureau  reports  on  acreage, 
production,  values,  and  other  general  facts  incidental  to 
farm  crops.  The  following  examples  may  be  solved  by 
use  of  the  accompanying  table  taken  from  the  1910  cen- 
sus report  and  showing  statistics  of  the  1909  crops.  The 
corresponding  table  for  1899  is  also  given. 

Some  Cereal  Crops  Grown  in  the  United  States  in  1909. 


Crop 

Acreage 

Bushels 

Value  of  crop 

Com 

98.382,665 

44.262,592 

35,159.441 

7,698.706 

2.195.561 

878,048 

610,175 

2,552,189,630 

683,379,259 

1,007,142,980 

173,344,212 

29,520,457 

14,849,332 

21,838,580 

$1,438,553,919.00 

Wheat     , 

657,656,801.00 

Oats 

414,697,422.00 

Barley 

92,458,571.00 

Rye.    .. 

20,421,812.00 

Buckwheat 

9,330,592.00 

Rice 

16,019,607.00 

Note. — All  figures  beyond  the  first  three  are  of  little  im- 
portance and  may  be  omitted  in  calculation.  98,382,665  may  be 
taken  as  98,400,000,  and  2,553,189,630  as  2,550,000,000. 

Some  Cereal  Crops  Grown  in  the  United  States  in  1899. 


Crop 

Acreage 

Bushels 

Value  of  crop 

Com 

TTlaeat 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Buckwheat 

Rice 

94,913,673 

52,528,574 

29,539,698 

4,470.196 

2.054.292 

807.060 

351,344 

2.666,440,279 

658,534,252 

943,389,375 

119,634.877 

25,568,625 

11.235,515 

9.002,886 

$828,258,326.00 

369,945,230.00 

217,098,584.00 

41,631,762.00 

12,290,540.00 

5,747,853.00 

7,891,613.00 

FIELD   CROPS 


105 


316.  In  1909  what  was  the  yield  per  acre  of  oats  ?  The 
vahie?  In  1899? 

317.  Yield  per  acre  of  barley  ?    Value  per  acre? 

318.  Yield  and  value  of  rye  ? 

319.  Yield  and  value  of  buckwheat? 

320.  Yield  and  value  of  rice? 


Crimson  Clover  a  Fine  Cover  Crop. 

In  this  cotton  field  at  last  cultivation  of  cotton  crimson  clover  was  seeded.  A 
splendid  stand  is  now  in  evidence.  When  plowed  under  the  following  spring  a 
great  quantity  of  life-giving  vegetable  matter  will  help  the  soil  for  future  pro- 
duction. 


321.  What  was  the  average  price  per  bushel  of  oats 
in  1909?    In  1899? 

322.  Of  barley?    Of  rye?    Of  buckwheat? 

323.  The  average  price  per  bushel   (45  pounds)   of 
rice?    Per  pound? 

Statistics  of  hay.     For  statistics  of  other  kinds  of  hay 


106 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


and  forage  crops  consult  Census  Bureau,  or  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  reports.  The  following  table 
is  from  the  1900  census  rejXDrt. 

Certain  Hay  Crops. 


Crop 

Acreage 

Tons 

Value  per 
ton 

Millet 

1,743,887 

2,094,011 

4,103.968 

31.301.689 

2,850.959 

5,220.671 

5,167,188 

35,624.395 

) 

Alfalfa 

'     «.7A 

Clover 

>  $5.76 

Timothy  and  other  tame  grasses 

) 

324. 

1899? 

325. 
326. 
327. 
328. 


What  was  the  average  yield  per  acre  of  millet  for 

Of  alfalfa?    Of  clover? 

Of  timothy  and  other  tame  grasses? 

What  the  total  value  of  hay  produced  in  1899  ? 


The  combined  hay  and  forage  crop  acreage  in 
1899  was  61,691,000.  The  1909  acreage  shows  an  in- 
crease of  17.2  per  cent.  What  was  it?  The  1909  crop 
averaged  1.35  tons  per  acre.  How  many  tons?  The  1909 
crop  was  worth  $11.40  per  acre.    What  was  this  per  ton  ? 

Statistics  of  Potatoes. 

Irish  and  sweet  potatoes  enter  largely  into  the  diet  of 
all  classes  of  people.  The  former  is  also  used  extensively 
in  the  manufacture  of  starch. 


Potatoes  in  the  Year  1909. 

Crop 

Acreage 

Bushels  per  acre 

Value 

3.668,855 
641.255 

106.1 
92.4 

$166,423,910.00 

35,429.176.00 

FIELD   CROPS. 


107 


329.  How  many  bushels  of  Irish  potatoes  were  pro- 
duced in  1909  ?     Sweet  potatoes  ? 

330.  The  Irish  potato  acreage  in  1899  was  81  per  cent 
of  that  in  1909.  The  number  of  bushels  per  acre  in  1909 
was  93.0,  and  the  price  per  bushel  was  36  cents.  What 
was  the  value  of  the  1899  crop? 


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Corn  Improved  by  Selection. 

The  original  stock  is  shown  at  the  right.     By  carefully  selecting  the  best  ears, 
the  type  at  the  left  was  obtained. 


331.  What  was  the  average  price  per  bushel  of  Irish 
potatoes  in  1909? 

332.  The  average  price  of  sweet  potatoes  ? 

333.  It  has  been  proved  that  a  more  careful  selection 
of  wheat  for  seed  purposes  will  greatly  increase  the  pro- 
duction of  each  acre.    Were  this  increase  but  one  bushel 


108  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

per  acre,  how  many  bushels  of  increase  would  there  be 
with  the  same  acreage  as  in  1909  ? 

334.  When  sold  at  80  cents  per  bushel  what  would  be 
the  value  of  the  increased  production  ? 

335.  An  ideal  country  road  may  be  graded  and  made 
of  stone  for  a  sum  not  exceeding  $3,000  per  mile.  How 
many  miles  of  such  road  could  be  made  annually  from  the 
sum  represented  by  one  bushel  per  acre  increase  in  the 
wheat  crop? 

336.  How  many  such  roads  from  Boston  to  San  Fran- 
cisco might  thus  be  built  each  year  ? 

337.  How  many  years  would  be  required  to  pay  in  this 
way  for  such  a  road,  whose  length  is  equal  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  earth? 

338.  Corn  is  often  calculated  on  a  basis  of  120  ears 
per  bushel.    What  is  the  weight  of  each  ear? 

339.  When  corn  is  planted  in  rows  44  inches  apart, 
how  many  rows  per  acre  in  a  field  80  rods  long? 

340.  How  many  stalks  per  acre  when  planted  12 
inches  apart  in  the  row? 

341.  When  one  ear  is  produced  per  stalk,  what  is  the 
yield  per  acre? 

342.  If  corn  is  selected  and  bred  to  average  one  and 
one-half  ears  per  stalk  of  same  weight  as  above,  what  is 
the  yield  per  acre  ? 

343.  If  corn  is  bred  so  as  to  increase  the  weight — 100 
ears  to  the  bushel — what  will  be  the  yield  per  acre,  corn 
being  planted  12  inches  apart  in  rows  44  inches  wide  ? 

344.  If  corn  is  planted  12  inches  apart  in  rows  38 
inches  apart,  what  is  yield  per  acre,  one  ear  per  stalk 
and  120  ears  per  bushel? 


FIELD   CROPS.  109 

345.  If  on  the  average  one  out  of  five  grains  fails  to 
germinate,  what  is  the  yield  per  acre?  What  is  the  loss 
per  acre  at  50  cents  per  bushel? 

346.  If  corn  shrinks  10  per  cent  in  weight  between 
harvest  time  and  the  following  summer,  what  is  the  loss 
when  corn  produces  40  bushels  per  acre,  and  is  worth  50 
cents  per  bushel  ? 

347.  What  is  this  loss  for  the  whole  country,  provided 
10  per  cent  of  the  corn  crop  is  carried  over  until  the  next 
summer  ? 

348.  If  it  shrinks  12  per  cent,  what  is  the  annual  loss  ? 

349.  Fifty-eight  samples  of  seed  corn  were  tested  for 


Seeding  Corn  Land  to  Wheat. 

This  custom  enables  two  crops  to  be  grown  with  one  plowing,  a  saving  of  time 
and  labor.     Corn  land  is  also  fairly  good  preparation  for  wheat. 

vitality.  Of  that  selected  from  corn  in  shock,  78  grains  out 
of  each  100  germinated;  from  the  crib,  87  grains;  of 
seed  selected  at  harvest  time  and  carefully  stored,  94 
grains  germinated.  What  was  the  percentage  of  germina- 
tion for  each  method  ? 

350.  What  was  the  difference  in  per  cent  of  germina- 
tion between  well-stored  seed  corn  and  that  from  shocks  ? 
From  crib? 


110  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

351.  Suppose  the  seed  corn  used  in  the  United  States 
in  1914  to  be  average  crib  seed,  what  would  be  the  gain 
in  bushels  if  well-stored  seed  were  used? 

352.  If  seed  germinating  80  per  cent  be  used,  and  once 
replanted  with  the  same  grade  of  seed,  what  will  be  the 
stand  ? 

353.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  loss  of  cotton,  when 
stored  under  trees  and  exposed  to  weather  at  compresses, 
farms,  and  railroad  depots  is  10  per  cent  of  the  value.  If 
25  per  cent  of  the  cotton  crop  is  thus  exposed,  what  was 
the  annual  loss  to  cotton  farmers  in  1909  in  this  way  ? 

354.  It  is  estimated  that  cotton  fiber  of  good  length 
and  uniformity  is  worth  two  cents  more  per  pound  than 
that  of  the  average  now  produced.  If  25  per  cent  of  the 
cotton  crop  were  improved  so  as  to  secure  this  additional 
value,  what  would  have  been  the  increased  value  of  our 
cotton  crop  for  1909  ? 

355.  It  costs  on  the  average  $1  per  acre  to  *'chop"  cot- 
ton. If  improved  cultural  methods  were  secured,  that  this 
cost  might  be  reduced  one-half,  what  would  have  been  the 
saving  on  the  cotton  crop  of  1909  ? 

356.  It  costs  60  cents  per  hundred  to  pick  cotton. 
What  was  the  cost  for  picking  the  1909  cotton  crop  ? 

357.  For  every  pound  of  cotton  lint  produced  two 
pounds  of  cottonseed  are  produced.  How  many  tons  of 
seed  in  the  cotton  croo  of  1909  ? 


puuiiu.s  Ml   *^uui.uiisccu  die  piuui 

seed  in  the  cotton  crop  of  1909 


358.  At  40  cents  per  bushel  (30  pounds),  what  was 
the  value  of  the  1909  cottonseed  crop? 

359.  The  average  price  of  cotton  in  1899  was  7  cents 
per  pound.    Since  that  time  cotton  has  averaged  12  cents 


FIELD    CROPS 


111 


per  pound.     What  would  be  the  value  cf  the  1899  crop 
at  this  price?    The  1909? 

360.  The  value  of  the  commercial  cotton  crop  for  1904 
was  $633,600,000.  That  year  13,342,515  bales  of  cotton 
were  produced.  What  was  the  average  value  of  cotton 
per  pound,  estimating  495  pounds  to  the  bale  ? 


Cotton  Bolls. 
Here  are  shown  a  mature  unopened  and  an  opened  cotton  boll. 


361.  In  1909,  476,849  acres  were  planted  to  sugar 
cane.  The  value  of  the  crop  was  $26,415,952.  What  was 
the  average  value  per  acre? 

362.  The  same  year  444,088  acres  were  devoted  to 
sorghum  cane.  The  value  of  the  crop  was  $10,174,457, 
What  was  the  value  per  acre  ? 


112  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

363.  The  same  year  364,093  acres  were  planted  to 
sugar  beets,  which  produced  a  crop  worth  $19,880,724. 
What  was  the  value  per  acre?  In  1899,  110,170  acres 
worth  $3,323  240.  Value  per  acre?  Per  cent  of  increase 
during  the  decade  ? 

Cost  of  Production. 

364.  What  is  the  cost  in  your  locality  of  plowing  an 
acre  of  land?     Determine  this  as  accurately  as  you  can. 

365.  Of  harrowing? 

366.  How  many  acres  can  be  rolled  in  one  day? 

367.  How  many  acres  can  be  cultivated  in  one  day  ? 


This  Plowing  Is  Ideal. 
Note  how  mellow  and  crumbled  the  furrow  slice  has  been  left. 

368.  How  many  acres  can  be  cultivated  in  a  day  with 
a  double  cultivator? 

369.  When  corn  or  cotton  is  cultivated  four  times 
during  the  season,  and  the  labor  of  a  man  costs  $1.50  a 
day,  what  is  the  average  saving  during  a  season  through 
the  use  of  a  double  cultivator  ? 

370.  What  is  the  cost  of  harvesting  an  acre  of  corn? 

371.  Of  wheat?   Of  cotton? 


FIELD   CROPS.  113 

372.  Have  these  costs  increased  in  your  locality  or  de- 
creased during  the  last  few  years?  Would  these  costs 
and  changes  in  costs  have  any  influence  in  determining 
the  kind  of  farming  you  would  do  ? 

373.  Determine  the  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  the 
crop  in  which  you  are  most  interested.  Include  all  opera- 
tions. (1)  From  plowing  to  marketing,  (2)  maintenance 
of  land  and  tools,  (3)  interest  on  the  investment.  Is  the 
growing  of  this  crop  open  to  any  improvements  which 
would  make  for  economy  in  production? 

Important  truth.  The  cost  of  producing  any  crop 
varies  with  the  richness  of  the  land,  the  time  of  planting, 
the  effectiveness  of  the  tillage,  the  cost  of  labor,  the  quality 
and  quantity  of  fertilizer  used,  the  climatic  conditions, 
and  the  skill  and  knowledge  of  the  producer.  Every 
farmer  should  keep  an  accurate  record  of  every  item  of 
expense  for  each  crop  grown.  He  should  study  these  fig- 
ures and  profit  by  them.  He  should  experiment  with 
a  view  to  discovering  what  is  for  him,  all  things  consid- 
ered, the  best  practice.  He  will  thus  adjust  his  farm- 
ing to  the  local  conditions,  and  will  learn  many  things  no 
book  or  outside  observer  can  tell  him. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

FRUIT  AND  VEGETABLES. 

Millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
grown  and  shipped  to  market  every  season;  and  fully 
as  much  more  is  canned,  dried,  or  preserved  in  some  other 
way  for  use  during  the  unproductive  period  of  the  year. 
Many  people  think  that  the  fruits  are  more  important  than 
the  vegetables,  but  this  is  not  true,  at  least  from  a  money 
standpoint.  In  1909  the  value  of  vegetables  produced  in 
the  United  States  was  $417,000,000,  including  $166,000,- 
000  worth  of  potatoes;  that  of  all  other  horticultural 
products  amounted  to  $273,000,000,  of  which  $140,000,- 
000  represented  the  tree  fruits,  $30,000,000  small  fruits, 
and  $22,000,000  each  of  grapes  and  citrus  fruits. 

374.  A  farmer  in  western  New  York  decided  to  plant 
apple  trees  40  feet  apart  on  10  acres  of  his  land.  How 
many  trees  did  he  set  out  ? 

375.  He  thought  that  because  the  trees  would  hardly 
begin  to  bear  profitable  crops  until  they  were  eight  or  ten 
years  old,  he  could  grow  currant  bushes  between  the  trees 
for  several  years,  so  he  planted  them  5  feet  apart.  How 
many  did  he  plant  ? 

376.  Before  the  currant  bushes  were  old  enough  to 
bear,  the  four  nearest  ones  to  the  apple  trees  began  to 
fail  and  had  to  be  removed.    How  many  were  dug  up  ? 

377.  As  these  bushes  cost  10  cents  each  when  bought, 
and  as  planting  and  cultivation  cost  10  cents  more,  how 
much  did  he  lose  by  buying  too  many? 

378.  When  the  currants  began  to  bear  they  produced 

114 


FRUIT   AND   VEGETABLES. 


115 


an  average  of  4  quarts  to  the  bush.  The  farmer  paid 
boys  and  girls  two  cents  a  quart  for  picking.  How  much 
money  did  he  have  to  pay  for  picking  all  the  fruit  on  this 
10  acres? 

379.  He  sold  the  currants  at  10  cents  a  quart.  How 
much  money  did  he  have  left  after  paying  for  the  pick- 
ing? 


Cultivating  Beans. 


380.  In  the  sixth  year  the  apple  trees  bore  a  peck  of 
apples  each,  and  because  the  farmer  handled  them  prop- 
erly they  doubled  in  production  each  year  until  they  were 
12  years  old.    How  much  did  they  produce  each  year? 

381.  The  farmer  sold  his  apples  in  barrels  holding 
100  quarts  each.  How  many  barrels  did  he  sell  in  the 
tenth  year  from  his  orchard  ? 

382.  He  figured  that  it  cost  him  90  cents  a  barrel  to 


116  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

grow,  pick,  grade,  pack,  and  deliver  a  barrel  of  fruit.  He 
received  $2  a  barrel.  How  much  did  his  orchard  pay  him 
in  the  12th  year  ? 

How  Spraying  Helps. 

Spraying  is  a  very  modern  farm  practice.  In  a  busi- 
ness way  it  is  scarcely  more  than  25  years  old.  During 
these  years  a  very  large  number  of  machines  have  been 
invented  to  lighten  the  labor  of  spraying,  and  to  do  the 
work  better.  Nowadays  no  good  farmer  who  grows  fruit 
or  vegetables  neglects  to  practice  spraying.  He  knows 
that  if  he  does  not  spray  his  crops  will  be  neither  so  large 
nor  so  good.  Poisons  are  used  for  insects  that  chew 
their  food;  and  oil,  dust,  or  caustics  for  those  that  suck 
the  juices  of  the  plants.  Various  materials  are  used  to 
prevent  diseases  attacking  cultivated  plants.  After  the 
diseases  have  once  gained  a  foothold  there  is  little  use  in 
spraying.  With  both  insects  and  diseases,  therefore,  pre- 
vention is  better  than  a  cure. 

383.  As  an  experiment  a  western  New  York  farmer 
sprayed  part  of  his  potato  field  six  times  with  bordeaux. 
At  harvest  time  he  found  that  the  unsprayed  part  of  the 
field  yielded  150  bushels  and  the  sprayed  part  330  bushels. 
What  was  the  percentage  gain  due  to  spraying  ? 

384.  He  made  two  grades  of  the  salable  tubers,  and 
found  that  60  per  cent  of  the  sprayed  potatoes  could  be 
sold  at  40  cents  a  bushel  and  the  balance  at  30  cents, 
whereas  only  40  per  cent  of  the  unsprayed  salable  tubers 
could  be  marketed  as  first  grade,  the  balance  being  sec- 
ond grade.  How  much  did  he  get  for  each  lot,  and  how 
much  of  the  money  was  due  to  the  spraying? 

385.  The  same  farmer  then  began  potato  seed  selec- 
tion. It  took  him  two  days  (20  hours),  worth  $4  of  his 
time,  to  select  and  to  plant  according  to  rules.     But  the 


FRUIT   AND   VEGETABLES. 


117 


quarter  of  an  acre  so  planted  yielded  at  the  rate  of  40 
bushels  an  acre  more  than  his  general  field  average — 150 
bushels.  If  he  had  sold  the  10  bushels  from  his  quarter- 
acre  at  40  cents  a  bushel,  would  they  have  paid  for  his 
extra  time  in  selecting  and  planting? 


Spraying  the  Orchard. 

Spraying  is  just  as  important  a  feature  of  commercial  orcharding  as  fertilizing, 
picking,  and  packing  the  fruit. 


386.  When  he  saw  that  he  came  out  "just  even"  he 
was  a  little  disappointed,  but  he  decided  to  follow  the  rules 
once  more,  so  he  used  the  400  best  hills  (the  product  of 
100  best-producing  tubers),  as  his  basis  of  selection  and 
used  the  next  best  ones  for  the  "general  field"  the  next 
year.  Selection  and  planting  took  him  only  one  day  this 
time,  because  he  had  fewer  potatoes  to  handle  and  plant. 
At  digging  time  his  quarter-acre  of  selected  tubers  yielded 


liy  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

50  per  cent  more  than  the  first  year.  If  he  had  sold  his 
crop  at  40  cents  a  bushel,  how  much  would  he  have  made 
on  his  expenditure  of  time  in  careful  selection  and  plant- 
ing? 

387.  He  felt  encouraged  by  his  results,  and  tried  the 
plan  a  third  year,  this  time  using  the  best  tubers  for  his 
selection  plot  and  the  next  best  for  the  general  field.  Im- 
agine his  surprise  and  pleasure  at  digging  time  to  find  that 
the  selected  tubers  in  the  general  field  yielded  30  per  cent 
more  salable  tubers  than  unselected  seed,  which  yielded 
150  bushels  an  acre.  He  sold  his  crop  at  40  cents.  How 
much  did  he  make  an  acre  on  the  time  spent  in  selecting 
the  seed  the  first  and  the  second  year  ? 

388.  A  man  bought  a  Maryland  farm  which  had  an 
orchard  of  100  mature  but  neglected  trees,  that  bore 
scarcely  more  than  a  barrel  of  salable  fruit  each  the  first 
year.  Before  spring  opened  the  following  year  he  had 
cut  out  all  the  dead  wood  and  as  many  of  the  water- 
sprouts  as  he  dared,  but  was  prevented  from  doing  any 
spraying,  fertilizing,  or  cultivating  that  season.  In  the 
autumn  he  harvested  and  sold  an  average  of  three  bar- 
rels of  salable  apples  to  the  tree  at  $2  a  barrel.  He  fig- 
ured that  the  pruning  took  him  an  average  of  two  hours 
to  the  tree,  and  that  his  time  was  worth  25  cents  an  hour. 
What  did  he  make  out  of  his  pruning? 

389.  The  next  year  he  fertilized  the  whole  orchard 
with  stable  manure,  but  could  get  none  of  it  sprayed  and 
only  half  of  it  plowed.  This  half  he  kept  cultivated  un- 
til midsummer,  when  he  sowed  crimson  clover  as  a  cover 
crop.  Plowing  and  cultivating  cost  $25.  At  harvest  time 
he  found  that  the  cultivated  plot  yielded  50  per  cent  more 
salable  fruit  than  the  uncultivated  part.  He  received  $900 
for  the  fruit.    How  much  money  did  he  get  from  each 


FRUIT  AND  VEGETABLES. 


119 


half,  and  how  much  did  he  make  on  his  outlay  for  plow- 
ing and  cultivating? 

390.  In  the  spring  of  the  third  year  he  fertilized, 
l)lowed,  and  cultivated  the  whole  orchard  and  sprayed  all 
but  20  trees,  10  in  the  part  uncultivated  the  previous  year 
and  10  in  the  cultivated  part.  These  trees  were  left  as 
checks.  The  spraying  cost  40  cents  a  tree.  At  harvest 
time  he  gathered  an  average  of  three  barrels  of  salable 


W^^^    ^mW^M^'^ 


Engine  Power  Used  in  Orchard. 

Gas  and  oil  engines  are  gradually  replacing  much   of  the  work  formerly  done 
by  hand  or  horse  labor. 

fruit  to  the  tree  from  the  10  trees  in  the  part  uncultivated 
the  year  before,  four  barrels  each  from  the  10  trees  in 
the  cultivated  part,  six  barrels  from  the  sprayed  trees 
cultivated  only  one  year,  and  seven  barrels  from  the 
sprayed  trees  cultivated  two  years.  He  figured  (1)  the 
difference  in  yield  due  to  cultivating  the  orchard  two  years 
as  against  one  year;  (2)  the  difference  between  the  check 


120  FARM  ARITHMETIC. 

i 

trees,  cultivated  two  seasons  and  only  one  season;  (3) 
the  difference  due  to  spraying  in  the  once  cultivated  half 
of  the  orchard  (check  trees  with  sprayed  ones)  ;  and  (4) 
a  like  difference  between  the  twice  and  the  once-cultivated 
half.    What  were  his  answers? 

391.  A  farmer  bought  a  Delaware  peach  orchard  of 
200  trees  that  averaged  three  pecks  of  fruit  to  the  tree 
the  year  he  bought  it.  He  planned  to  sell  the  crop  in 
half-peck  baskets,  and  estimated  that  15  per  cent  of  the 
crop  would  be  unsalable.  He  ordered  his  baskets  on  this 
basis,  but  when  he  picked  the  fruit  the  trees  averaged 
10  per  cent  less  than  he  had  estimated,  and  when  graded 
20  per  cent  were  unsalable.  How  many  baskets  had  he 
left  on  hand? 

392.  The  second  year  he  experimented  in  thinning. 
After  the  "June  drop"  he  removed  half  the  fruit  from 
the  trees  in  each  alternate  row  through  the  orchard.  This 
year  he  calculated  upon  three  pecks  to  the  tree  and  20 
per  cent  as  unsalable.  But  only  10  per  cent  of  the  fruit 
was  unsalable,  and  all  of  that  was  on  the  unthinned  trees. 
As  the  baskets  left  over  from  the  previous  year  were  in 
good  condition  and  could  be  used,  how  many  baskets  did 
he  order,  and  how  many  should  he  have  ordered? 

393.  The  salable  peaches  on  the  unthinned  trees  sold 
for  40  cents  a  basket,  and  that  from  the  thinned  trees  at 
50  cents.  He  calculated  the  cost  of  thinning  at  15  cents 
a  tree.  How  much  did  he  make  on  the  operation  because 
of  the  finer  fruit? 

394.  A  Maryland  fruit  grower  uses  annually  150  bar- 
rels of  lime-sulphur  spray  in  his  750-acre  orchard.  Sup- 
posing his  trees  to  be  30  feet  apart,  and  supposing  that  he 
can  buy  the  spray  material  at  $4.50  a  barrel,  how  much 
does  the  material  alone  cost  an  acre? 


rRUlT   AND   VEGETABLES.  121 

395.  A  fruit  grower  who  made  lime-sulphur  mixture 
for  spraying,  found  that  making  the  stuff  in  large  quanti- 
ties cost  him  8  cents  a  gallon,  but  that  his  mixture  would 
go  only  80  per  cent  as  far  as  commercial  material  which 
cost  $4.50  a  50-gallon  barrel.  Supposing  the  results  upon 
the  crop  to  be  equal,  would  it  be  more  economical  for 
him  to  make  his  own  spray  or  to  buy  it,  and  how  much 
money  difference  would  there  be? 

396.  A  fruit  grower  bought  600  pounds  of  arsenate  of 
lead  at  $7  a  100  pounds  to  spray  for  codling  moth  lar- 
vae (apple  worms).  He  used  only  GO  per  cent  of  it  and 
the  balance  was  left  over  till  the  following  year.  Sup- 
pose interest  to  be  5  per  cent,  how  much  would  he  have 
saved  or  lost  if  he  had  bought  the  amount  he  needed  each 
of  two  years  at  8  cents  a  pound  ? 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FARM   ANIMALS. 

Farm  animals  have  always  been  closely  identified  with 
prosperity  in  agriculture.  Their  high  development  and 
large  production  in  this  country  are  due  partly  to  the  skill 
and  intelligence  of  their  keepers,  and  partly  to  the  splen- 
did grasses  and  other  food  plants  that  are  grown  so  suc- 
cessfully. And  yet  the  animal  industry  is  far  from  what 
it  should  be ;  scrubs  and  inferior  animals  must  give  way 
to  improved  stock  that  products  of  higher  quality  may 
result. 

Statistics  of  Farm  Animals. 

The  total  value  of  the  horses,  mules,  dairy  and  beef 
cattle  of  all  kinds,  swine,  sheep,  and  goats  in  the  United 
States  in  1910  was  $5,296,421,619,  of  which  value  neat 
cattle  constituted  29.5  per  cent,  horses  47.3  per  cent, 
mules  11.0  per  cent,  swine  7.7  per  cent,  sheep  4.4  per  cent, 
goats  0.1  per  cent. 

397.  What  was  the  value  of  neat  cattle  in  the  United 
States  for  the  census  year  1910  ? 

398.  Of  horses  ?  This  represents  what  per  cent  of  the 
value  of  the  cattle  ? 

399.  Of  mules?  This  is  what  per  cent  of  the  value 
of  the  horses? 

400.  Of  swine?  Of  these  2.7  per  cent  were  not  on 
farms;  what  was  their  value? 

401.  Of  sheep?  These  were  reported  from  617,000 
farms,  what  was  the  average  value  per  farm  ? 

123 


124 


FARM  Arithmetic. 


402.  Of  goats?  In  1900  their  value  was  $2,982,000. 
What  per  cent  of  gain  in  value  ? 

Value  per  head  for  each  class.  The  average  value  per 
head  in  each  class  for  the  same  census  year  was  as  fol- 
lows: Cattle  (neat),  $24.50;  horses,  $108.87;  mules, 
$126 ;  swine,  $6.88 ;  sheep,  $4.44 ;  and  goats,  $2.16. 


Out  for  an  Airing. 

The  pony  and  pony  cart  are  childhood  sports  on  many  American  farms.  It  is 
on  the  farm,  in  agriculture,  and  in  contact  with  Mother  Nature  that  are  fash- 
ioned vigorous  bodies,  clear  brains,  steady  nerves,  self-reliance,  character  and 
sympathy. 


403.  How   many   cattle  of   all  kinds   in   the  United 
States  in  1910? 

404.  How  many  horses?     Mules?     Swine?     Sheep? 
Goats? 


FARM   ANIMALS.  125 

405.  In  1900  there  were  in  the  United  States  69,336,- 
000  cattle,  valued  at  $1,409,392,000.  What  was  the  value 
per  head  ? 

406.  In  1900  there  were  23,016,000  horses,  valued  at 
$49.07  each.    What  was  their  total  value  ? 

407.  In  1900  the  average  value  of  swine  was  $3.69, 
the  total  value  $226,400,000.    What  was  the  number? 

408.  In  1910  there  were  6,361,500  farms.  Of  these 
5,285,000  reported  cattle,  and  611,000  reported  sheep. 
What  per  cent  .had  cattle?  Sheep:?  What  was  the  aver- 
age number  of  cattle  and  sheep  per  farm?  ^ 

409.  Make  a  tcible  showing  these  statistics  of  farm 
animals  as  given  and  calculated. 

Horses.  Form,  quality,  action,  and  purity  of  breeding 
largely  influence  the  commercial  value  of  horses.  Good 
horses  are  always  in  demand  at  good  prices,  while  in- 
ferior ones  are  numerous  and  are  expensive  at  any  price. 
It  will  pay  you  to  study  and  observe  this  animal.  When 
you  become  the  owner  of  a  horse  be  sure  it  is  a  good 
one  and  that  you  give  it  the  best  of  care. 

Oral   Exercise. 

410.  What  is  the  average  cost  of  a  good  work  horse 
in  your  community? 

411.  Of  a  good  roadster? 

412.  How  many  hands  high  is  a  horse  64  inches  high 
(4  inches  =  1  hand)  ? 

413.  What  differences  do  you  know  between  the  draft 
type  and  the  roadster  type  ? 

Measuring   horses.     A   good   horse   is   well   propor- 


126 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


tioned.  Length  of  head,  width  between  eyes,  height  at 
croup,  length  of  body,  etc.,  should  bear  the  correct  rela- 
tions to  one  another.  Expert  judges  always  note  these 
proportions. 

The  most  beautiful  horse  is  the  one  in  which  the  dif- 
ferent parts  blend  most  nicely,  and  in  which  the  different 
measurements  bear  to  each  other  the  most  nearly  correct 


Prize  Winning  Shorthorn  Cattle, 

Note  the  straight  backs,  deep  sides  and  blocky  character  of  these  animals, 
show  a  form  typical  of  the  beef  breeds. 


They 


proportions.  Incorrect  proportions  give  the  ungainly, 
awkward,  and  poorly  esteemed  horse ;  one  not  pleasing  to 
the  eye,  and  not  efficient  in  its  work.  Good  form,  high 
quality,  and  pleasing  action  may  be  secured  only  through 
intelligence  in  selection  and  care  in  breeding. 


Some  Average  Measurements. 

1.    Width  between  eyes :  Slightly  more  than  one-third 
length  of  head. 


FARM    ANIMALS.  127 

2.  Length  of  head :  Slightly  less  than  three  times  width 
between  eyes. 

3.  Height  at  croup:  (1)  Two  and  one-half  times  length 
of  head,  (2)  height  of  horse  at  withers,  (3)  length  of 
body  from  point  of  shoulder  to  quarter. 

4.  Height  at  withers:  (1)  Approximately  two  and  one- 
half  times  length  of  head,  (2)  height  at  croup,  (3) 
length  of  body  from  point  of  shoulder  to  quarter. 

5.  Length  of  body:  (1)  Two  and  one-half  times  length 
of  head,  (2)  length  at  withers,  (3)  height  at  croup. 

Oral  Exercise. 

414.  A  certain  horse  measures  9  inches  wide  between 
his  eyes.    What  should  be  the  length  of  his  head  ? 

415.  The  head  of  another  horse  is  28.5  inches  long. 
What  is  the  length  of  his  body? 

416.  His  height  at  withers  ?    At  croup  ? 

417.  What  should  be  the  length  of  a  horse's  head 
when  the  body  is  62  inches  long? 

418.  The  height  at  the  croup  ?    At  the  withers  ? 

419.  A  certain  horse  is  17.5  hands  high  at  the  croup, 
and  has  exactly  the  proportions  given  above,  what  is  his 
height  at  his  withers? 

420.  The  length  of  his  body? 

421.  The  length  of  his  head? 

422.  The  width  between  his  eyes  ? 

Important  truth.  While  the  problems  given  here  are 
measurements  of  real  horses,  not  all  good  horses  con- 


128 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


form  to  the  standard.  Draft  horses  often  are  slightly 
higher  at  the  withers  than  at  the  croup;  and  horses  for 
speed  are  often  higher  at  the  croup  than  at  the  withers; 
also  the  length  of  the  body  may  be  greater  than  the 
height  at  croup  or  at  withers.  This  variation  is  much 
less,  however,  than  one  would  suppose.    Draft  is  favored 


Hackney,  Typical  of  the  Harness  Class. 


when  the  height  at  withers  is  slightly  greater  (one  or  two 
inches)  than  at  croup,  while  speed  is  favored  when  there 
is  a  slightly  greater  height  at  the  croup. 

Line  of  gravitation.  The  center  of  gravity  in  the 
horse  is  the  point  about  which  all  the  parts  are  exactly 
balanced.    If  the  horse  could  be  supported  at  this  point, 


FARM    ANIMALS.  129 

the  whole  body  would  be  at  rest  in  any  position,  whatever. 
The  vertical  line  through  the  center  of  gravity  is  called 
the  line  of  gravitation.  In  draft  horses  the  center  of 
gravity  is  low,  and  tends  to  a  forward  position ;  in  horses 
having  speed  the  center  of  gravity  is  high,  and  tends  to 
a  rear  position. 

The  point  at  which  the  line  of  gravitation  meets  the 
ground  may  be  determined  if  we  know  (1)  the  weight  of 
the  horse,  (2)  weight  on  fore  feet,  and  (3)  length  of  base 
of  support  (distance  between  fore  and  hind  feet  when 
standing). 

423.  A  horse  weighs  978  pounds,  of  which  565  pounds 
are  on  the  front  feet,  and  413  pounds  on  the  hind  feet. 
When  the  distance  between  the  points  of  contact  with  the 
ground  of  the  front  and  hind  feet  is  43  inches,  how  far  in 
front  of  point  of  contact  of  hind  feet  does  the  line  of 
gravitation  fall? 

Process : 
Let  F  =  weight  on  front  feet. 

H  =  weight  on  hind  feet. 

D  =  distance  between  points  of  contact   (front  and  hind 
feet). 

X  =  distance  of  line  of  gravitation  forward  of  hind  feet. 

Y  rz:  distance  of  line  of  gravitation  back  of  fore  feet. 

F  X  D 
X  = and  Y  =  D  —  X 

F  +  H 

565  X  413 
X  =  =  25 

565  +  413 

Y  m  43  —  25  =  18 

Note. — This  formula  is  an  expression  of  the  following  prin- 
ciple in  physics.  The  line  of  action  of  the  resultant  of  two 
parallel  forces  divides  the  distance  between  them  in  the  inverse 
ratio  of  that  of  the  two  forces.  This  formula  contains  four 
quantities.  It  may  be  used  to  find  any  one  of  them  when  the 
remaining  three  are  known. 

424.  A  horse  sustains  570  pounds  on  his  fore  feet  and 


130  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

430  pounds  on  his  hind  feet;  the  distance  between  fore 
and  hind  feet  is  44  inches.  What  distance  in  front  of 
the  hind  feet  does  the  Hne  of  gravitation  fall  ?  What  dis- 
tance back  of  the  fore  feet  ? 

425.  A  horse  weighing  1,200  pounds  sustains  680 
pounds  on  his  front  feet.  When  he  stands,  the  distance 
between  fore  and  hind  feet  is  46  inches.  What  distance 
back  of  the  fore  feet  does  the  line  of  gravitation  fall? 

426.  Another  horse,  weighing  910  pounds,  sustains 
390  pounds  on  his  hind  feet.  What  is  the  distance  be- 
tween the  fore  and  hind  feet  if  the  line  of  gravitation  falls 
24  inches  in  front  of  the  hind  feet?    Ans.    42  inches. 

Cattle.  All  farm  animals  were  once  called  cattle; 
the  term  now  applies  only  to  beef  and  dairy  animals — 
the  so-called  neat  cattle.  Cattle  raising  is  an  important 
feature  of  American  agriculture.  Scrub  cattle  are  usually 
grown  with  but  little  profit  and  frequently  at  an  actual 
loss.  Well-bred  and  well-tended  cattle,  whether  for  beef 
or  for  the  dairy,  bring  good  returns  to  the  owner. 

Gain  in  Live  Weight  of  Beef  Animals. 

427.  At  the  Kansas  agricultural  college  10  steers,  in 
two  lots — five  in  each  lot — were  fed  for  143  days.  The 
grain  feed  for  each  steer  in  both  lots  was  19.4  pounds  of 
corn  and  0.4  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal,  daily.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  grain,  Lot  1  was  fed  daily,  12.9  pounds  of 
alfalfa  hay,  and  Lot  2,  10.8  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay,  3.5 
pounds  of  prairie  hay,  2.5  pounds  of  sorghum  stover  and 
1  pound  of  silage  daily.  What  was  the  average  daily 
gain  of  each  steer  in  the  two  lots,  those  in  Lot  1  having 
gained  406  pounds  for  the  period,  and  those  in  Lot  2, 
333  pounds? 


FARM    ANIMALS.  131 

428.  How  many  pounds  increase  of  live  weight  for 
each  100  pounds  of  grain  consumed  by  Lot  1  ?    By  Lot  2  ? 

429.  At  the  same  college  some  steers  were  fed  in  two 
lots ;  one  a  "balanced  ration,"  the  other  ear  corn.  The 
lot  fed  the  balanced  ration  made  an  average  gain  of  406 
pounds  each,  for  the  period,  having  consumed  3,055 
pounds  of  grain  and  973  pounds  of  fodder  each ;  the  lot 
receiving  ear  corn  made  an  average  gain  of  230  pounds 
each,  having  consumed  3,223  pounds  of  grain  and  535 
pounds  of  fodder  each.  LIow  many  pounds  of  grain  were 
required  to  make  100  pounds  gain  for  the  balanced  ration 
lot?    For  the  ear  corn  lot? 

430.  What  percentage  more  grain  was  necessary  to 
make  100  pounds  gain  with  the  ear  corn  ration  than  with 
the  balanced  ration  ? 

431.  When  fodder  is  worth  $5.00  per  ton,  ear  corn 
40  cents  per  bushel  and  grain  (composing  the  balanced 
ration)  $16.00  per  ton,  how  much  greater  is  the  profit 
from  feeding  the  balanced  ration  as  indicated  by  the 
above  experiment,  where  25  steers  are  fed? 

Gain  in  Weight  at  Different  Ages. 

432.  Experiments  show  that  a  steer  of  good  breeding 

will  gain  live  weight  as  follows  : 

First   period,  birth  to  297th  day  2.63  pounds  daily 

Second  period,  297th  to  612th  day  2.18  pounds  daily 

Third  period,  612th  to  943d    day  1.74  pounds  daily 

Fourth  period,  943d  to  1283d  day  1.51  pounds  daily 

What  is  the  total  gain  in  weight  of  a  steer  when  1,283 
days  (3}^  years)  old?  How  much  more  than  at  birth 
should  its  weight  be,  at  the  end  of  the  first  period?  Sec- 
ond?   Third? 

433.  During  the  first  period  (1-297  days)  the  aver- 


132  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

age  cost  of  increase  (all  items  of  expense  included)  is 
$4.03  per  100  pounds  of  gain;  the  second  period  (297- 
612),  $6.00  per  100  pounds  of  gain;  third  period  (612- 
943),  $7.98  per  100  pounds  of  gain;  the  fourth  period 
(943-1,283),  $12.54  per  100  pounds  of  gain.  What  is  the 
total  cost  of  support  up  to  the  end  of  the  first  period? 
Second  period?    Third  period?    Fourth  period? 

434.  What  is  the  value  of  such  a  steer  at  the  end  of 
the  first  period  if  he  is  sold  at  5  cents  per  pound  live 
weight  ? 

Age  of  Steers  with  Reference  to  Cost  of  100  Pounds  Gain. 


CALVES 

ONE      YEAR    OLD 
TWO      YEARS  OLD 
THREE  YEARS  OLD 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHTS 

AVERAGE  COST  IN  DOLLARS  OF  100  POUNDS  GAIN 
1.00      2.00       3.00      4.00      5.00     6.00     7.00 

397 
883 
lOII 
1226 

Cheapest  Gains  Are  Made  with  Young  Animals. 

As   animals   advance   in    age   the   cost   of   food   for  maintenance    and   increase 
advances  also.     Compare  the  four  classes  of  cattle  as  sketched  above. 

435.  His  value  at  the  end  of  the  second  period  if  sold 
at  6y^  cents  per  pound? 

436.  His  value  at  the  end  of  the  third  period  if  sold 
at  7  cents  per  pound? 

437.  His  value  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  period  (3^ 
years  old),  if  sold  at  8  cents  per  pound? 

438.  What  is  the  profit  at  end  of  first  period?  Of 
second?    Of  third?    Of  fourth? 

439.  At  what  age  should  such  a  steer  be  sold  with 
market  price  at  8  cents  per  pound?  At  6^  cents?  At 
5  cents  ?    At  4  cents  ?    At  3  cents  ? 


FARM    ANIMALS. 


133 


The  steer  maintains  a  practically  uniform  rate  of  gain 
from  birth  until  two  years  old.  The  cost  of  the  gain  in 
the  second  period  is  50.  per  cent  greater  than  in  the  first ; 
in  the  third  period  twice  that  in  the  first;  and  in  the 
fourth  period  three  times  that  in  the  first.  These  thor- 
oughly established  facts  should  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion by  the  stockman  when  deciding  at  what  age  to  mar- 
ket his  cattle.  Beef  cattle  are  most  profitable  when 
marketed  between  the  ages  of  one  year  and  two  and  a 
half  years. 


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3  1b. 

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s 

s 

^ 

s, 

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^ 

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m^ 

„^ 

lib. 

L_ 

0     100   2.    3.    4.    5.    6.    7.    8.     9.    10.    II.    1200   days. 
Relation  Between  Daily  Gain  in  Weight  and  Age  in  Days. 


Dairy  type  versus  beef  type.  The  Minnesota  Ex- 
periment Station  has  definitely  proven  that  the  produc- 
tive capacity  of  the  cow  depends  more  upon  type  and 
conformation  than  upon  size  or  breed.  By  testing  a 
large  number  of  cows  it  was  found  that  those  of  the  beef 
type  produced  butter  fat  at  a  cost  of  17i/2  cents  a  pound, 
while  the  spare  cows  having  deep  bodies  produced  butter 
fat  at  a  cost  of  12.1  cents  a  pound. 


134 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


440.  How  much  greater  in  cents  and  in  per  cent  is  the 
cost  of  producing  one  pound  of  butter  from  the  beef 
type  than  from  the  dairy  type,  when  the  former  produce 
butter  fat  at  a  cost  of  17.5  cents  per  pound  and  the  latter 
at  a  cost  of  12.1  cents  ? 

441.  Suppose  two  dairymen  produce  each  4,000 
pounds  of  butter  fat  annually.  One  has  the  beef  type  of 
cattle,  the  other  the  dairy  type.     What  is  the  difference 


^^ 

^y 

4tlO 

^^  - 

y 

y" 

/ 

y 

4tin 

^y 

>IU. 

^^ 

^-^"^ 

<t  c 

^^  ^ 

5  5.                ^: 

^^ 

25"^ 


500 


750 


1000 


1250        1500 


Relation  Between  Cost  Per  100  Pounds  of  Gain  and  Age  in  Days. 

in  profits  when  the  co?^  of  butter  by  the  beef  type  is 
17.5  cents  and  by  the  dairy  type  12.1  cents  a  pound  ? 

442.  In  the  last  problem  assume  the  average  net  selling 
price  of  butter  to  be  25  cents  and  determine  the  profits 
of  each  dairyman. 

Value  of  Succulent  Food. 

443.  At  the  New  Jersey  station  a  silage  ration  was 


FARM    ANIMALS.  135 

compared  with  a  dry  fodder  ration  for  dairy  cows. 
Those  receiving  silage  produced  2,276.2  pounds  of  milk 
which  contained  86.15  pounds  of  fat,  while  those  fed  dry 
fodder  ration  produced  2,017.9  pounds  of  milk  which 
contained  78.02  pounds  of  fat.  What  was  the  per  cent 
of  increase  of  milk  of  the  silage  ration  over  the  dry  fod- 
der ration  ?  The  per  cent  increase  of  butter  fat  of  silage 
over  dry  fodder  ration? 


Jersey  Cow  Showing  Dairy  Type. 

444.  When  this  increase  is  obtained  for  a  herd  of  25 
cows  that  average  300  pounds  of  butter  fat  per  year, 
what  is  the  value  of  the  increased  product,  butter  being 
sold  at  25  cents  per  pound? 

445.  At  the  Maine  Experiment  Station  4  cows  were 
fed  rations  that  included  (1)  hay,  (2)  hay  and  silage;  the 
total  yields  of  milk  were  as  follows : 

On  hay,  1,«12  pounds 

On  silage  and  hay,  1,294  pounds 


136  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

What  was  the  per  cent  increase  of  milk  when  the  ration 
was  changed  from  hay  to  hay  and  silage  ? 

446.  This  experiment  was  continued  at  the  same  sta- 
tion, the  cows  being  fed  first  the  silage  and  hay  ration 
and  then  changed  to  the  hay  ration.  The  total  yields  were 
as  follows: 

On  silage  and  hay,  1,200  pounds 

Changed  to  hay,  1,100  pounds 

What  is  the  per  cent  of  decrease  of  milk  when  the  ra- 
tion was  changed  from  silage  and  hay  to  hay? 


Angus  Steer  Shuvung  Beef  Type. 

Cost  of  producing  butter  fat.  A  herd  record  that 
includes  cost  of  feed  for  each  cow  and  amount  of  milk 
and  butter  fat  she  produced,  enables  the  owner  to  estimate 
the  cost  of  production  with  exactness. 

The  results  for  some  cows  at  the  Cornell  Station  were 
as  follows: 


FARM  ANIMALS. 


137 


Cost  of  Producing  Butter  Fat. 


No.  of  cow 

Cost  of  feed  con- 
sumed  during   year 

Milk  produced 

Fat  produced 

No.  1 

No.  2 

$44.24 
47.65 
41.24 
52.06 
44.34 
49.08 

8,028 
9,739 
2,829 

11,165 
5.458 

10,754 

391.62 
309  19 

No.  3 

159  02 

No.  4 

417  97 

No.  5 

195  31 

No.  6 

439  37 

447.  At  what  cost  per  pound  is  butter  produced  by 
cow  No.  1? 

448.  By  cow  No.  2? 

449.  By  cow  No.  3? 

450.  By  cow  No.  4? 

451.  By  cow  No.  5? 

452.  By  cow  No.  6  ? 

453.  When  butter  sells  at  25  cents  per  pound,  what 
is  the  profit  or  loss  during  the  year  from  cow  No.  1  ? 

454.  From  cow  No.  2? 

455.  From  cow  No.  3  ? 

456.  From  cow  No.  4? 

457.  From  cow  No.  5  ? 

458.  From  cow  No.  6  ? 

Important  truth.  Some  cows  are  very  profitable  to 
their  owners ;  others  are  kept  at  a  loss.  A  record  must 
be  kept,  that  unprofitable  cows  may  be  eliminated  from 
the  herd  and  their  places  filled  by  good  ones. 

Sheep.     The  sheep  is  the  plant-scavenger  of  the  farm. 


138 


FARM  ARITHMETIC- 


Even  when  little  care  and  attention  are  given,  some  profit 
is  derived  from  this  farm  animal.  It  may  be  raised  for 
wool  or  mutton,  or  for  both. 

459.  Two  farmers  fed,  for  100  days,  240  sheep  each. 
Flock  No.  1,  because  of  care  and  shelter  given  it,  made 
an  average  daily  gain  of  0.3  of  a  pound  for  the  whole 
feeding  period,  while  flock  No.  2,  made  an  average  daily 
gain  of  only  0.18  pounds.  How  much  was  the  total  gain 
of  each  flock  for  the  entire  feeding  period? 


Section  of  Cow  Stable  Floor. 

460.  When  purchased  the  sheep  in  flock  No.  1  had 
an  average  weight  of  48  pounds  each ;  those  of  flock  No. 
2,  an  average  weight  of  51  pounds.  The  cost  of  sheep 
in  both  flocks  was  3.5  cents  a  pound ;  the  selling  price  for 
flock  No.  1  was  5.5  cents  and  for  flock  No.  2,  5  cents  a 
pound.    What  sum  was  secured  for  flock  No.  2  ? 

461.  The  cost  of  producing  the  increase  in  flock  No.  1 
was  $3.80  per  hundred.  What  profit  was  realized  on  this 
flock? 

462.  The  cost  of  producing  the  increase  in  flock  No. 
2  was  $4.40  per  hundred.  What  profit  was  realized  on 
this  flock? 

463.  How  much  greater  was  the  profit  derived  frorh 
the  flock  to  which  care  and  attention  were  given  than  from 
the  neglected  flock? 


FARM    ANIMALS. 


139 


464.  Expressed  in  per  cent,  how  much  greater  was  the 
profit  on  flock  No.  1  than  on  flock  No.  2  ? 

Swine.  The  hog  excels  all  other  animals  in  the 
cheap  production  of  meat.  When  allowed  to  graze  on 
pasture,  and  when  properly  fed  and  cared  for  otherwise, 
it  will  net  its  owner  more  profit  in  proportion  to  its  cost 
than  any  other  animal  on  the  farm. 


^^^•' '  ^fsairv;;;^^  P^'yiiHI^HIiNn^HH 

^W'  '^^^^S^^^^HUH^^H 

f  'i 

m 

Supper  Time  for  the  Pigs. 
Middlings  and  corn  meal  are  mixed  with  water  or  milk  and  fed  as  a  slop. 

465.  A  hog,  weighing  78  pounds,  requires  400  pounds 
of  grain  for  each  100  pounds  gain,  while  a  hog  weighing 
320  pounds  requires  535*  pounds  of  grain  for  each  100 
pounds  gain.  Expressed  in  per  cent,  how  much  more 
grain  in  required  for  the  320-pound  hog? 

466.  What  is  the  cost  of  producing  100  pounds  of  gain 
when  feeding  78-pound  hogs  with  corn  costing  42  cents 
per  bushel  ? 


140  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

467.  When  fed  to  320-pound  hogs  ? 

468.  How  much  profit  on  every  hundred  pounds  of 
gain  when  feeding  42-cent  corn  to  78-pound  hogs,  the 
selHng  price  of  hogs  being  6  cents  per  pound  Hve  weight. 

469.  In  feeding  42-cent  corn  to  320-pound  hogs  ? 

470.  How  much  profit  is  made  on  100  pounds  gain  by 
feeding  56-Gent  corn  to  78-pound  hogs,  the  increase  being 
worth  5^/2  cents  per  pound  Hve  weight  ? 

471.  In  feeding  56-cent  corn  to  320-pound  hogs  what 
is  the  profit  on  100  pounds  gain  ? 

472.  Suppose  corn  is  worth  56  cents  per  bushel  and 
hogs  6  cents  per  pound  Hve  weight.  What  is  the  profit  or 
loss  in  producing  100  pounds  of  increase  by  feeding  the 
78-pound  hog? 

473.  By  feeding  the  320-pound  hog? 

474.  The  amount  of  grain  required  to  add  a  total  of 
3,000  pounds  to  the  weight  of  hogs  of  320-pound  weight 
would  add  what  weight  to  hogs  of  the  78-pound  class  ? 

Important  truth.  Hogs  return  to  their  owner  the 
greatest  relative  profit  if  sold  at  an  age  of  from  six  to 
nine  months.  They  then  weigh  between  150  and  200 
pounds.  Hogs  weighing  from  300  to  400  pounds  are 
usually  sold  at  a  loss.  Only  when  feed  is  cheap  and 
prices  high  can  heavy  hogs  be  produced  at  a  profit.  Feed- 
ing beyond  the  point  at  which  the  cost  of  production 
equals  the  selling  price  always  entails  an  actual  loss. 

Poultry.  Poultry  raising  is  not  a  specialized  indus- 
try in  the  United  States.  Except  in  a  comparatively 
few  instances  it  is  a  side  issue  of  the  general  farming 
activities.    Nevertheless,  it  is  one  of  the  most  important 


FARM    ANIMALS.  141 

lines  of  American  agriculture,  contributing  many  mil- 
lions of  dollars  to  its  wealth,  and,  next  to  the  dairy,  fur- 
nishing the  most  important  and  acceptable  supply  of  food. 

475.  In  the  year  1909,  there  were  5,578,525  farms 
where  chickens  were  raised.  On  each  farm  there  was 
an  average  of  50.3  chickens.  How  many  were  there  on 
farms  that  year  in  the  United  States  ?  This  is  a  gain  of 
20  per  cent  over  1899.    How  many  in  1899  ? 


Trio  of  Light  Brahmas. 

No  farm  is  complete  without  its  flock  of  poultry  for  eggs  and  meat.  In  the 
aggregate  the  poultry  crop  adds  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  to  the  annual 
returns  of  farming. 

476.  There  was  an  average  in  1909  of  about  5.7  dozen 
eggs  laid  by  each  chicken;  what  was  the  production  of 
eggs? 

477.  The  average  value  of  chickens  on  each  farm  on 


142  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

which  they  were  raised  was  $25.13  What  was  the  value 
of  each  chicken?  What  was  the  total  value  of  chickens 
that  year  on  the  farms  ? 

478.  In  1909  eggs  averaged  19.3  cents  per  dozen. 
What  was  the  value  of  the  eggs  produced? 

479.  If  the  value  of  chickens  sold  during  the  year  is 
taken  as  $75,000,000,  what  was  the  value  of  the  whole 
chicken  crop,  including  those  on  farms,  those  sold,  and 
eggs  produced  ? 

Gross  earnings  of  some  lines  of  business.  When  the 
gross  earnings  from  poultry  are  compared  with  those  of 
other  lines  of  business  the  extent  of  the  poultry  business 
is  more  clearly  indicated.    This  is  seen  below. 

Gross  Earnings  of  Several  Industries. 


Line  of  business 

Gross  earnings 

Poultry 

$500  000  000  00 

Banks 

40  151  037  00 

Gold 

67  806  890  00 

Silver 

70  074  625  00 

Street  railways 

247  553  999  00 

Coal 

276  147  0S6  00 

480.  About  how  many  times  greater  were  the  gross 
earnings  from  poultry  than  from  banks  in  1909  ? 

481.  Than  all  of  the  gold  mined  ? 

482.  Than  all  the  silver  mined? 

483.  Than  all  the  gold  and  silver  combined? 

484.  Than  the  gross  earnings  of  the  street  railway? 

485.  Than  gross  earnings  of  all  the  coal  mines? 


CHAPTER  IX. 

HAND  AND  MACHINE  LABOR.' 

Fifty  years  ago  there  were  but  few  farm  implements 
and  machines  available.  Much  human  labor  was  then 
required  to  produce  a  crop  of  any  kind.  Farmers  cradled 
their  wheat  and  bound  it  by  hand,  hauled  the  sheaves 
to  the  barn,  and  threshed  the  grain  with  flails.  These 
operations  required  for  each  bushel  of  wheat  harvested 
the  labor  of  one  man  for  an  average  time  of  183  min- 
utes. One  man  using  the  labor-saving  machinery  now 
found  on  the  average  farm  can  do  the  same  work  in  ten 
minutes.  With  a  combined  reaper  and  thresher  operated 
by  steam  but  four  rninutes  of  human  labor  is  required  to 
harvest  a  bushel  of  wheat. 

Reduction  of  Human  Labor. 

486.  In  1855  the  amount  of  human  labor  expended  in 
growing  an  acre  of  corn  was  183  hours.  In  1906  the 
amount  was  27^  hours.  The  production  of  corn  in  both 
instances  was  40  bushels  per  acre.  How  much  human 
labor  was  required  to  produce  one  bushel  of  corn  in  1855  ? 
In  1906? 

487.  What  is  the  percentage  of  decrease  in  the  amount 
of  human  labor  required  for  the  production  of  one  bushel 
of  corn? 

488.  In  1830  the  amount  of  human  labor  expended  on 
an  acre  of  oats  was  66  hours;  in  1906  the  amount  was 
7.1  hours.  The  production  in  both  cases  was  40  bushels 
per  acre.  What  was  the  human  labor  requirement  per 
bushel  in  1830?    In  1906? 

143 


w 


HAND   AND    MACHINE   LABOR.  145 

489.  How  many  times  as  much  human  labor  were  re- 
quired in  1830  as  1906? 

490.  In  1866,  to  produce  an  acre  of  potatoes,  yield- 
ing 110  bushels,  55  hours  of  human  labor  were  required ; 
in  1906  the  human  labor  requirement  for  producing  an 
acre  yielding  220  bushels  was  but  38  hours.  What  is  the 
percentage  of  decrease  from  1866  to  1906? 

491.  What  was  the  human  labor  requirement  per 
bushel  in  1866?    In  1906? 

492.  In  1860  the  amount  of  human  labor  expended  on 


Various  Types  of  Sickles. 

an  acre  of  cotton  was  115.9  hours ;  in  1911  it  was  111.9. 
The  production  in  both  cases  was  350  pounds  of  lint  cot- 
ton an  acre.  How  many  minutes  of  human  labor  were 
required  to  produce  one  pound  of  lint  cotton  in  1860? 
In  1906? 

493.  In  1855  the  amount  of  human  labor  expended  on 
an  acre  of  sugar  cane  was  351.3  hours;  in  1906  it  was 
161.5  hours.  The  production  in  both  cases  was  20  tons 
an  acre.  What  was  the  human  labor  requirement  per 
ton  in  1855?    In  1906? 

494.  In  1855  the  cost  of  human  labor  was  $14.30  and 
of  animal  labor  $2.03  for  the  production  of  an  acre  of 
corn.  In  1906  the  cost  of  human  labor  was  $4.23  and 
animal  labor  $2.39.    The  production  in  both  cases  was  40 


146  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

bushels  an  acre.     What  was  the  total  cost  of  labor  per 
bushelinl855?    In  1906? 

495.  In  1830  the  cost  of  human  labor  was  $3.55  and 
animal  labor  $0.28  for  the  production  of  an  acre  of  wheat  ; 
in  1906  the  cost  of  human  labor  was  66  cents  and  animal 
labor  $1.36.  The  production  in  both  instances  was  20 
bushels  an  acre.  What  was  the  cost  of  labor  per  bushel 
in  1830?    In  1906? 


American   Cradle. 
The  tool  used  for  reaping  until  after  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

496.  In  1830  the  cost  per  acre  of  oats  was  for  human 
labor  $3.73  and  for  animal  labor  $0.12.  In  1906,  the  cost 
an  acre  was,  human  labor  $1.07,  animal  labor  $0.53.  The 
production  in  both  instances  was  40  bushels  an  acre. 
What  was  the  cost  of  labor  per  bushel  in  1830  ?    In  1906  ? 

497.  In  1866,  the  cost  per  acre  of  potatoes,  yielding 
110  bushels,  was  for  human  labor  $5.45  and  for  animal 
labor  $1.15 ;  in  1906  the  cost  per  acre  yielding  220  bushels 
was,  for  human  labor  $3.80,  and  for  animal  labor  $2.17. 
What  was  the  cost  of  labor  per  bushel  in  1866  ?    In  1906  ? 

498.  In  1855  the  cost  per  acre  of  cotton  was,  for 
human  labor  $8.79,  and  for  animal  labor  $1.95;  in  1906 
the  cost  per  acre  was,  for  human  labor  $6.61,  and  for 
animal  labor  $1.34,     The  production  in  both  instances 


HAND   AND    MACHINE   LABOR. 


147 


was  350  pounds  of  lint  cotton  per  acre.     What  was  the 
cost  of  labor  per  pound  of  lint  cotton  in  1855  ?    In  1906  ? 

499.  In  1855  the  cost  per  acre  of  sugar  cane  was,  for 
human  labor  $37.94,  and  for  animal  labor  $2.38 ;  in  1906 
the  cost  per  acre  was,  for  human  labor  $11.32,  and  for 
animal  labor  $5.05.  The  production  in  both  cases  was 
10  tons  per  acre.  What  was  the  cost  of  labor  per  ton 
in  1855?    In  1906? 


Threshing  the  Wheat. 
A  familiar  scene  on  all  grain  farms. 


Cost  and  labor  requirement  of  some  crops.     The 

table  below  may  be  used  for  further  comparisons  to  show 
the  decrease  in  the  cost  of  producing  crops  and  in  the 
human  eflfort  required,  during  the  last  40  or  50  years. 


148 


FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


Crop 

Year 

Requirement  of 
htiman  labor 

Cost  of  labor 

Yield  per 

Hours 

Min- 
utes 

Hitman 

Animal 

acre 

Rye 

Sweet  potatoes.. 

Tomatoes 

Strawberries 

Beets 

1845 
1906 

1855 
1906 

1870 
1906 

1872 
1906 

1850 
1906 

66 
25 

317 
122 

324 
134 

1,732 
675 

441 
202 

3.8 
10.0 

20.0 
9.0 

20.0 
52.5 

20.0 
21.2 

0.0 
35.0 

$3.30 
2.65 

28.23 
7.53 

29.98 
12.33 

226.64 
93.43 

30.45 
18.38 

$1.43 
1.32 

6.07 
2.76 

6.23 
3.42 

4.63 
4.48 

1.85 
1.63 

25  bushels 

105  bushels 

150  bushels 

4,000   quarts 

300  bushels 

500.  Find  differences  in  human  labor  requirement  and 
cost  per  unit  of  each  of  the  above  crops  for  the  years 
stated. 


CHAPTER  X. 

FARM    MECHANICS. 

Work.  The  word  work  is  used  in  various  senses.  It 
will  here  be  used  in  its  scientific  sense — that  of  moving 
against  resistance.  The  mere  push  or  pull  of  a  force 
is  not  work;  the  point  of  application  of  the  force  must 
move  before  work  can  be  said  to  be  done.  A  foot-pound 
of  work  is  done  when  a  force  of  one  pound  moves  its 
point  of  application  through  a  distance  of  one  foot  in 
the  direction  of  the  force. 

501.  How  much  work  is  done  by  a  force  of  20  pounds 
when  its  point  of  application  moves  30  feet  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  force? 

Process:     20  X  30  =  600  foot-pounds  of  work. 

502.  How  much  work  is  done  when  a  160-pound  man 
climbs  to  the  top  of  a  40- foot  windmill  ? 

503.  How  much  work  is  done  when  a  120-pound  boy 
walks  up  one  flight  of  stairs  to  a  second  floor  which  is  10 
feet  above  the  first  ?  Ans.  1,200  foot-pounds. 

504.  How  much  work  does  a  1,200-pound  horse  do  in 
walking  up  a  hill  100  feet  high  ? 

505.  The  draft  of  (the  force  required  to  pull)  a  cer- 
tain hand  cart  is  15  pounds.  How  much  work  does  a  boy 
do  in  pushing  it  a  mile  ? 

Process:    5,280  X  15  =  79,200  foot-pounds. 

506.  How  much  work  is  done  by  a  team  in  plowing 
a  furrow  40  rods  long  when  the  draft  of  the  plow  is  600 
pounds? 

149 


150 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


507.  How  much  work  would  be  done  in  plowing  a 
headland  60  rods  long  and  6  rods  wide,  with  a  furrow 
12  inches  wide  and  draft  500  pounds  ?    Draft  300  pounds  ? 

508.  A  horse  does  396,000  foot  pounds  of  work  in 
drawing  a  certain  wagon  one-half  mile  ;  what  is  the  draft  ? 


Track  Contrivance   for   Feeding  Cattle. 

The   grain   is   prepared   and   mixed   in   the  barn   and  later   delivered  by  means 
of  track  and  cars  to  the  feeding  pens.     In  this  way  much  labor  is  saved. 


509.  Two  horses  draw  a  load  whose  draft  is  300 
pounds,  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  per  hour.  What  horse- 
power is  each  exerting?  A  horsepower  is  33,000  foot- 
pounds per  minute. 

Process : 

3  X  5,280  =  15.840  feet  per  hour. 

15,840 -f- 60  =  264  feet  per  minute. 

264  X  300  =79,200  foot  pounds  per  minute. 

79,200  ^  33,000  =  2.4  horsepower. 

2.4  -=-  2  ==:  1.2  horsepower  each. 

Note. — Working  at  this  rate,  this  team  should  not  be  required 
to  work  full  time. 

510.  At  what  rate  should  a  horse  walk  when  the  draft 


FARM    MECHANICS.  151 

is  150  pounds  to  develop  1  horsepower  ?    Two-thirds  of  1 
horsepower  ? 

511.  What  power  is  necessary,  assuming  no  loss,  to 
raise  grain  in  an  elevator  to  a  height  of  40  feet  at  the  rate 
of  one-half  ton  a  minute?  Five  thousand  bushels  an 
hour? 

512.  A  farmer  desires  to  fill  a  water  tank  60  feet  high. 
What  horsepower  engine  will  be  necessary  if  the  water  is 
raised  at  the  rate  of  210  gallons  a  minute?  (One  gallon 
of  water  weighs  8}^  pounds.) 

HORSE      .2% 


MAN       3.5% 


Relative  Cost  of  Power  When  Supplied  by  Horse  and  by  Man. 

513.  In  the  above  problem  what  power  will  be  re- 
quired if  50  per  cent  is  lost  in  friction  ? 

To  keep  a  weight  of  one  ton  moving  vertically  upward 
at  a  given  speed  requires  2,000  pounds  of  force. 

To  keep  a  ton  moving  horizontally  at  a  given  speed  on 
an  absolutely  smooth  or  frictionless  horizontal  surface 
requires  no  force  at  all. 

To  keep  a  ton  moving  horizontally  on  a  rough  horizon- 
tal surface  at  a  given  speed,  requires  just  enough  force 
to  overcome  friction. 

To  move  a  ton  up  a  sloping  surface  requires  more  force 
and  down  a  sloping  surface  less  force  than  along  a  hori- 
zontal surface.  By  the  use  of  wheels,  lubricants,  and  im- 
proved roadbeds,  friction  may  be  greatly  reduced.  On 
the  best  level  macadam  road  the  total  force  of  friction 
or  traction  per  ton  may  be  as  low  as  30  to  50  pounds. 
The  average  draft  on  hard  level  earth  road  with  an  ordi- 
nary wagon,  carrying  a  load  of  one  ton,  is  about  150 


152  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

pounds.  Thus  a  horse  weighing  1,800  pounds  may  readi- 
ly pull  a  wagon  and  load  of  one  ton  horizontally,  since  this 
would  require  a  pull  of  not  more  than  150  pounds.  He 
can  keep  this  up  indefinitely,  working  ten  hours  per  day 
and  walking  at  the  rate  of  2.5  miles  an  hour.  A  1,200- 
pound  horse  should  be  required  to  do  only  about  two- 
thirds  of  this  amount  of  work  per  day. 

514.  How  much  power  is  a  horse  developing  when 
walking  2.5  miles  an  hour,  and  exerting  a  steady  pull  on 
his  traces  of  150  pounds? 

Process : 

150  X  5,280  X  2.5 

=  1  horsepower. 

33,000  X  60 

515.  How  many  horsepower  is  a  horse  developing 
when  walking  2.5  miles  an  hour  with  a  steady  pull  on 
his  traces  of  100  pounds  ? 

516.  How  many  horsepower  is  a  horse  developing 
when  walking  four  miles  an  hour  and  pulling  75  pounds  ? 
90  pounds?    165  pounds? 

517.  A  horse  is  walking  2.5  miles  an  hour  and  pulling 
100  pounds  on  his  traces.  How  fast  should  he  walk  to 
develop  the  same  power  if  his  load  is  increased  to  a  pull 
of  150  pounds? 

518.  A  certain  horse  can  readily  draw  100  pounds 
when  walking  2.5  miles  an  hour.  How  rapidly  may  he 
travel  if  he  has  a  pull  of  but  25  pounds?  50  pounds? 
75  pounds  ?    200  pounds  ? 

519.  How  rapidly  with  a  pull  of  150  pounds,  if  he  is 
permitted  to  rest  one-half  of  the  time?  With  a  pull  of 
200  pounds? 


FARM    MECHANICS.  153 

Weight  of  Horse  Influences  Pulling  Power. 

Carefully  made  tests  indicate  that  a  horse  may  safely 
exert,  when  walking  2.5  miles  an  hour  and  working  10 
hours  a  day,  a  traction  equal  to  about  one-twelfth  to  one- 
tenth  its  weight. 


Bllgian   Stallion,  Showing  Draft  Type, 

520.  How  many  horsepower  is  a  horse  weighing  1,200 
pounds  capable  of  developing  when  walking  2.5  miles  an 
hour  and  working  10  hours  a  day  ?    A  1,600-pound  horse  ? 

Process : 
1/10  of  1,200  =  120,  pounds  the  horse  is  able  to  pull. 
120  X  5,280  X  2.5 

=z  0.8  horsepower. 

1,980,000 

521.  A  1,400-pound  horse?  1,000-pound  horse?  800- 
pound  horse? 


154  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

522.  A  horse  weighing  1,600  pounds  is  worked  with 
another  weighing  1,200  pounds.  This  team  walks  at  a 
rate  of  2.5  miles  an  hour.  What  should  be  the  pulling 
power  of  the  team,  working  10  hours  each  day  ? 

523.  The  doubletree  is  adjusted  so  that  each  horse 
shall  pull  one-half  of  the  weight.  This,  of  course,  re- 
quires the  lighter  horse  to  do  more  work  and  the  heavier 
less  work  than  their  weights  warrant.  Measured  in 
horsepower  what  is  the  excess  for  the  lighter  horse  ?  How 
much  less  for  the  heavier  horse  than  his  just  share? 

524.  The  doubletree  is  4  2-3  feet  long.    At  what  point 

should  it  be  attached  to  the  load  so  that  each  horse  may 

pull  its  just  share  when  the  difference  in  their  weights 

is  considered? 

Process : 

1,600-pound  horse  =  160  pounds  pull. 
1,200-pound  horse  =  120  pounds  pull. 

Total,  280 

160  -f-  280  =  .57,  part  of  load  1,600-pound  horse  pulls. 

120  -^  280  =:  .43,  part  of  load  1,200-pound  horse  pulls. 

4  2/3  feet  =  56  inches,  length  of  doubletree. 

.57  X  56  =  32  inches 

.43  X  56  =^  24  inches 

Total,         56  inches 
Check,    160  X  24  =  120  X  32. 

The  heavier  horse  should,  of  course,  be  hitched  to  the 
shorter  arm  of  the  doubletree  and  the  lighter  horse  to  the 
longer  arm.  When  so  hitched  the  amounts  of  work  they 
will  do  will  be  proportionate  to  their  weights. 

525.  On  account  of  a  difference  in  weight,  the  owner 
of  a  two-horse  team  desires  to  give  the  lighter  less  work 
than  the  heavier.  He  adjusts  a  4- foot  doubletree  so  that 
one  horse  shall  pull  60  per  cent  and  the  other  40  per  cent 
of  the  load.  What  is  the  length  of  each  arm?  Ans.  19 
and  29  inches. 


FARM    MECHANICS.  155 

526.  A  farmer  adjusts  a  45-inch  doubletree  so  that 
a  colt  which  he  is  breaking  may  pull  but  one-half  as  much 
as  the  older  horse.  What  is  the  length  of  the  colt's  end 
of  the  doubletree? 

Effect  of  Speed  on  Pulling. 

The  standard  quantities  are: 

1.  Rate,  2.5  miles  an  hour. 

2.  Size  of  horse,  1,200  pounds. 

3.  Pull,  120  pounds. 

4.  Days  work,  10  hours. 

5.  Rate  of  work,  4-5  of  a  horsepower. 

If  speed  is  increased  a  horse  is  able  to  pull  less  during 
10  hours ;  if  diminished  he  is  able  to  pull  more.  Experi- 
ence indicates  that  speed  between  three-fourths  of  a  mile 
and  four  miles  an  hour,  when  continued  for  10  hours, 
may  be  estimated  by  the  following  relation : 

Standard  speed  X  standard  pull  =  changed  speed  X 
changed  pull. 

527.  A  1,200-pound  horse  works  for  10  hours,  walk- 
ing at  the  rate  of  two  miles  an  hour.  How  many  pounds 
pull  may  be  expected  of  him  ? 

Process : 

2.5  X  120  =  2  X  pull  to  be  determined. 
300  -^-  3  =  150  pounds  pulling  force. 

528.  A  1,200-pound  horse  walks  three  miles  an  hour 
for  10  hours.    What  pull  may  he  exert  ? 

529.  A  1,600-pound  horse  walks  four  miles  an  hour 
for  10  hours.    What  pull  may  he  exert  ? 


156  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

530.  A  1,600-pound  horse  walks  two  miles  an  hour  for 
10  hours.    What  pull  may  be  expected? 

531.  A  1,500-pound  horse  is  exerting  a  pull  of  200 
pounds  while  working  10  hours  a  day.  How  fast  should 
he  walk?  How  fast  if  pull  is  150  pounds?  If  100 
pounds  ? 

532.  Two  horses,  one  weighing  1,600  pounds  and  the 
other  1,000  pounds,  are  walking  at  a  rate  of  three  miles 
an  hour.  What  pull  are  they  exerting,  provided  that  they 
are  doing  a  full  day's  work  (10  hours)  and  that  the 
doubletree  is  properly  adjusted  ? 

533.  At  what  rate  should  these  horses  walk  if  the  pull 
is  increased  to  a  total  of  520  pounds  ? 

Effect  of  Duration  of  Work  on  Pulling  Power. 

The  standard  day's  work  is  lo  hours.  If,  however, 
the  working  hours  be  decreased  more  may  be  required  of 
the  horse  either  in  speed,  or  load,  or  both.  Experiments 
indicate  that  between  five  and  10  hours,  speed  remaining 
the  same,  the  pull  may  be  increased  in  the  same  ratio 
as  the  hours  are  decreased.  This  may  be  shown  as  fol- 
lows: 

Standard  hours  a  day  X  standard  pull  =  changed  hours 
a  day  X  changed  pull. 

534.  A  1,200-pound  horse  walking  2.5  miles  an  hour 
works  for  five  hours.  How  many  pounds  pull  may  be 
expected  of  him  ? 

Process : 

10  X  120  =  5  X  pull  to  be  determined. 
1,200  -i-  5  =  240,  pounds  pulling  power. 

535.  If  this  horse  exerts  a  pull  of  180  pounds,  how 
many  hours  should  he  work  ?    200  pounds  ?    120  pounds  ? 


FARM   MECHANICS. 


157 


536.  A  1,200-pound  horse  walking  2,5  miks  an  hour 
works  six  hours.  How  many  pounds  pull  may  be  ex- 
pected of  him  ? 

537.  An  800-pound  horse,  walking  2.5  miles  per  hour, 
works  nine  hours.  How  many  pounds  pull  may  be  ex- 
pected of  him  ? 


Covered  Barnyard  of  Small  Cost. 
Cattle  are  protected  and  the  manure  is  preserved. 

538.  A  1,000-pound  horse  working  10  hours  each  day 
walks  at  the  rate  of  2.5  miles  an  hour.  What  pull  may 
be  expected? 

539.  A  1,000-pound  horse,  working  five  hours  each 
day,  is  walking  at  the  rate  of  2.5  miles  an  hour.  What 
pull  may  be  expected  ? 

540.  A  1,200-pound  horse  working  10  hours  each  day, 
walks  one  mile  an  hour.    What  pull  may  be  expected  ? 

541.  Another  1,200-pound  horse  working  but  five 
hours  each  day,  walks  four  miles  an  hour.  What  pull 
may  be  expected  ? 


158  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

542.  A  1,600-pound  horse,  working  five  hours  each 
day,  walks  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour.  What  pull 
may  be  expected  ? 

543.  An  800-pound  horse  working  10  hours  each  day 
walks  at  the  rate  of  one  mile  an  hour.  What  pull  may  be 
expected  ? 

Draft  of  Farm  Implements. 

Draft  is  the  amount  of  force  required  to  move  a  thing. 
The  subject  of  draft  should  be  given  the  fullest  con- 
sideration in  the  purchase  and  use  of  farm  tools  and 
implements.  Draft  is  always  at  the  expense  of  energy, 
either  motor,  horse,  or  human,  and  should  in  general  be 
reduced  to  the  minimum. 

This  may  be  accomplished  only  by  using  implements 
of  the  best  design  and  construction,  properly  cared  for, 
sharpened,  lubricated,  and  adjusted.  An  immense  amount 
of  labor  may  be  saved  and  much  time  gained  in  this  way. 

Draft  of  Plows. 

The  draft  of  a  plow  is  the  force  required  to  pull  it. 
This  force  varies  with  the  character  and  condition  of  the 
soil  and  the  type  and  condition  of  the  plow.  Many  tests 
have  been  made  with  different  plows  in  different  soils, 
and  under  different  conditions.  The  following  problems 
are  constructed  from  some  of  these  tests : 

544.  What  is  the  draft  per  square  inch  of  a  plow 
throwing  a  furrow  9  inches  wide  and  5  inches  deep  of 
blue  clay,  the  total  draft  of  which  is  661  pounds? 

Process : 
9  X  5  =  45,  number  of  square  inches  in  cross-section  of  furrow. 
661  -^  45  r=  14.7,  draft  per  square  inch. 

545.  What  is  the  draft  per  square  inch  for  a  plow 


FARM    MECHANICS.  159 

throwing  a  furrow  9  inches  by  5  inches  of  clay  loam,  the 
total  draft  being  227  pounds  ? 

546.  At  the  New  Hampshire  Agricultural  College  an 
old-fashioned  type  of  walking  plow  was  used  for  plow- 
ing a  rich  loam  soil.  The  furrow  slice  was  13  inches 
wide,  by  8  inches  deep.  The  total  draft  was  673.3  pounds. 
What  was  the  draft  of  each  square  inch  of  furrow  ? 

547.  How  much  power  is  required  when  such  a  plow 
is  used,  horses  walking  1  2-3  miles  an  .hour  ? 

548.  When  three  horses  are  used  for  pulling  this  plow, 
what  may  be  their  weight,  provided  they  walk  at  rate  of 
1  2-3  mile  an  hour  and  work  for  10  hours  each  day  ? 

549.  At  the  same  college  a  modern  type  of  walking 
plow  was  used  at  the  same  time  for  plowing  this  land. 
The  furrow  slice  was  also  13  inches  wide  and  8  inches 
deep,  draft  being  400  pounds.  What  was  the  draft  per 
square  inch  of  furrow  when  this  plow  was  used? 

550.  Using  this  modern  plow  and  the  three  horses 
found  in  problem  548,  at  what  rate  should  they  walk  if 
working  10  hours  each  day  ? 

551.  What  per  cent  of  time  is  saved  by  the  modern 
plow  over  the  older  type  when  the  same  horsepower  is 
used  in  both  cases?  How  much  time  in  a  job  requiring 
120  hours  with  the  older  plow  ? 

552.  How  many  horsepower  are  required  when  this 
modern  plow  is  used,  the  horses  walking  2.5  miles  an 
hour? 

553.  How  many  1,600-pound  horses  are  necessary  for 
this  plow,  when  they  are  made  to  walk  at  a  rate  of  2.5 
miles  an  hour  and  work  for  10  hours  each  day? 


160 


FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


554.  How  many  such  horses  as  the  three  found  in 
problem  548  should  be  used  with  this  plow  when  they 
walk  at  the  rate  of  1  2-3  miles  an  hour  and  work  for  10 
hours  each  day  ? 

Important  truth.  These  problems  illustrate  the 
value  of  modern  and  improved  farm  implements  and 
tools. 

This  experiment  shows  that  less  work  is  required  to 
accomplish  a  given  result,  with  modern  tools  than  with 
the  older  tools.  That  is,  to  do  a  given  piece  of  work  in 
a  given  time,  requires  less  horsepower,  and  to  -do  a  given 
piece  of  work  with  a  given  horsepower  requires  less  time. 

Plowing  Sod  Land  With  and  Without  Wheel  Coulter. 

The  table  below  shows  the  draft  of  a  sod  plow  when 
used  with  and  without  the  wheel  coulter. 

With  and  Without  the  Coulter. 


Method  of  plowing 

Size  of  furrow 

Total  draft 

Sod  plow  with  wheel  coulter 

Sod  plow  without  coulter  

5.5  inches  by  15  inches 
5,5  inches  by  15  inches 

296.0 
348.0 

555.  What  is  the  draft  per  square  inch  when  the  coul- 
ter is  used? 

556.  What  is  the  draft  per  square  inch  when  the  coul- 
ter is  not  used? 

557.  When  a  plow  with  the  coulter  is  used,  two  1,500- 
pound  horses  walking  at  the  rate  of  2.5  miles  an  hour  and 
working  10  hours  daily  are  able  to  do  the  work.  When 
the  same  plow  is  used  without  the  coulter  what  weight  is 


FARM    MECHANICS. 


161 


necessary  for  the  team,  walking  at  the  same  rate,  and 
working  the  same  number  of  hours  daily  ? 

558.  A  stubble  plow  is  used  with  and  without  the  coul- 
ter. The  total  draft  with  the  coulter  was  300  pounds; 
without  it  410  pounds.  A  two-horse  team  walking  at  the 
rate  of  2.5  miles  an  hour  for  10  hours  daily  pulled  the 
plow  with  ease  when  the  coulter  was  used.  But  a  third 
horse  was  necessary  without  it.  What  was  the  minimum 
allowable  weight  of  the  third  horse  ? 

Draft  of  furrows.  The  following  tests  were  made 
where  the  soil  was  a  clay  loam  and  shortly  before  had 
been  sod. 

Draft  of  Disk  Harrow. 


Grade 

How  set 

Draft 

1-8 

676 

1-8 

At  full  angle,  up  grade,  no  load 

At  full  angle,  down  grade,  man  riding 

At  ordinary  angle,  down  grade,  man  riding 

At  ordinary  angle,  down  grade,  no  load 

At  straight  angle,  level,  man  riding 

At  straight  angle,  level,  no  load 

555 

1-8 

555 

1-8 

398 

1-8 

386 

None 

None 

314 
266 

559.  How  many  pounds  draft  are  added  to  the  pull 
of  a  disk  harrow  up  grade  when  the  driver  rides?  What 
is  the  percentage  of  increase? 

560.  What  is  the  difference  in  draft  of  the  disk  har- 
row, set  at  full  angle,  when  operated  up  and  down 
hill?  What  is  the  percentage  greater  when  operated  up 
grade  ? 

561.  How  many  per  cent  greater  is  the  draft  of  a  disk 
harrow  operated  down  grade  when  the  driver  rides  than 
when  he  walks? 

562.  When  operated  on  level  ground  ? 


162  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

Important  truth.  It  should  be  remembered  that  when 
the  driver  rides  on  the  disk  harrow,  more  useful  work  is 
done,  since  more  soil  is  moved.  Thus  while  draft  is  in- 
creased, the  work  is  not  necessarily  uneconomically  done. 

Oral  Problems  on  Draft  of  Disk  Harrows. 

563.  When  the  disk  harrow  is  set  at  full  angle  about 
how  many  horses  are  necessary?  About  what  weight 
should  they  be  ?  Should  they  be  worked  continuously  and 
at  rapid  gait  ?    About  how  fast  should  they  walk  ? 

564.  When  set  at  angle  as  ordinarily  used,  how  many 
horses  may  be  used  ?    Their  weight  ?    How  rapid  gait  ? 

565.  How  does  the  draft  of  the  disk  harrow  compare 
with  the  draft  of  the  plow  ? 

Spring-Tooth  Harrow. 

566.  When  the  spring-tooth  harrow  is  set  so  as  to  cut 
4  inches  deep  the  total  draft  is  451.3  pounds.  How  many 
1,200-pound  horses  are  needed  when  they  are  expected  to 
work  steadily  all  day  and  walk  two  miles  each  hour? 

Corn  Binder.  < 

The  following  shows  the  draft  of  the  corn  binder. 


Implement 

Trial  condition 

Draft 

Com  binder 

Heavy  com,  clay  lands,  soil  dry  and  mellow 
Light    com,  clay  lands,  soil  dry  and  mellow 

568.0 
302.0 

567.  How  many  pounds  more  of  draft  are  required 
by  heavy  corn  than  by  light? 

568.  What  is  the  percentage  of  difference? 


FARM    MECHANICS. 


163 


569.  How  many  1,600-pound  horses  walking  four 
miles  an  hour,  should  be  used  in  cutting  heavy  corn,  if 
the  binder  is  used  only  five  hours  daily  ? 

570.  How  many  horses,  and  of  what  weight,  will  pull 
this  binder  in  light  corn,  walking  slightly  more  than  2.5 
miles  each  hour  for  10  hours  daily? 

Farm  Wagons. 

The  draft  required  for  a  2,000-pound  net  load  and 
wagon,  has  been  estimated  for  high  and  low  wheels  with 
6-inch  tires,  from  the  trials  made  at  Missouri  Experiment 
Station,  as  follows : 

Draft  of  Wagon  on  Different  Kinds  of  Roads. 


Hauled  over 

Condition 

Kind  of  wheels 

Draft 
total 

Draft 
per   ton 

Earth  road  loam .  . 

Dry  and  hard 

High,  44  and  56  inch 
Low,    24  and  28  inch 

130 
182 

69 
109 

Gravel  road 

Dry,  1  inch  sand 

High 
Low 

159 
185 

85 
110 

Earth  road  loam .  . 

Thawing,  J  inch  mud 

High 
Low 

189 
234 

Sod  land 

Wet  and  spongy 

High 
Low 

325 
473 

Plowed  ground .... 

Freshly  plowed 

High 

Low 

475 
628 

571.  Given  that  the  high  and  low-wheeled  wagons 
weighed  1,760  and  1,330  pounds,  respectively,  check  the 
figures  in  the  last  column  and  complete  the  column. 

♦      572.     When  used  on  the  gravel  road,  find  percentage  in 
favor  of  high  wheels  over  low  wheels  ? 


164 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


573.  When  used  on  the  thawing  dirt  road  ? 

574.  When  used  on  the  dry  dirt  road  in  good  condi- 
tion? 

575.  When  used  on  sod  land  that  is  wet  and  spongy  ? 

576.  When  used  on  freshly  plowed  land? 

577.  How  much  more  draft  is  required  for  hauling 
one  ton  net  over  freshly  plowed  ground  than  over  wet, 


Before  the  Coming  of  Modern  Wagons. 


•:^-^j:^-:^ 


spongy  land  when  high  wheels  are  used  ?    Percentage  dif- 
ference ? 

578.  Assuming  the  draft  per  ton  to  be  the  same  when 
the  loads  are  greater  than  those  used  in  the  experiment, 
find  draft  for  net  load  of  two  tons  on  high  and  low- 
wheeled  wagons  on  dry  earth  road.    On  wet  sod. 

579.  How  much  more  draft  is  required  for  hauling  a 
load  weighing  one  ton  over  dry  gravel  road  than  over 
dry  dirt  road?    Percentage  difference? 


FARM    MECHANICS. 


165 


580.  At  what  average  rate  should  two  1,500-pound 
horses  walk  with  two  tons  of  hay  on  an  1,800-pound  high 
wheel  wagon  in  wet  sod?    Low-wheel  wagon? 

The  width  of  tire.  On  good  roads  wide  tires  give  less 
draft  than  narrow  tires.  They  are  also  better  for  the 
road.  Experiments  conducted  by  the  Missouri  Experi- 
ment Station  resulted  as  follows: 

Draft  in  Pounds  per  Ton  of  Total  Weight. 


Condition 

Width  of  tire 
and  draft 

Kind  of  surface 

liin. 

6  in. 

Broken  stone 

Hard,  smooth 
Hard,  smooth 
Wet,  very  sandy 
Dry,  hard 
Stiff  mud 
Compact,  smooth 

121 
182 
246 
149 
497 
466 

98 

Gravel       

134 

Gravel 

Karth  road  loam 

254 
109 

Earth  road  loam 

307 

Plowed  ground             

323 

581.  What  per  cent  of  power  is  saved  by  the  use  of 
a  6-inch  tire  rather  than  a  1^-inch  tire  on  a  hard,  smooth 
road  of  broken  stone? 

582.  What  per  cent  of  the  power  is  wasted  when  a 
13/2-inch  tire  is  used  on  a  hard,  smooth  gravel  road? 

583.  What  is  the  draft  of  an  1,800-pound  wagon  with 
6-inch  tires,  carrying  a  load  of  two  tons  over  plowed 
ground?    What  draft  with  1^-inch  tires? 

584.  At  what  rate  should  two  1,200-pound  horses 
working  full  time  pull  a  1,500-pound  wagon  loaded  with 
three-fourths  ton,  and  having  6-inch  tires,  when  the  road 
is  a  stiff  loam  mud?    With  l^^-inch  tires? 

585.  Greasing  the  Axle,    Experiments  made  at  the 


166  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

Michigan  Agricultural  College  show  that  when  the  axles 
of  a  wagon  were  greased  the  draft  was  188  pounds  per 
ton;  when  ungreased  the  draft  was  230  pounds.  What 
is  the  percentage  of  difference? 

586.  When  a  230-pound  pull  is  required  to  haul  one 
ton,  the  axles  being  ungreased,  how  many  tons  may  be 
hauled  with  the  same  expenditure  of  power  when  the 
axles  are  greased  ? 

The  position  of  the  load.  The  position  of  the  load 
with  reference  to  the  four  wheels  of  a  wagon  may  in- 
fluence the  draft,  as  the  following  table  shows. 

Draft  with  Loads  Differently  Placed, 


Where  load  was  put 

Pasture  field 

Dry  meadow 

109 
121 
130 
102 

194 

Heaviest  on  one  side 

208 

235 

186 

587.  Where  should  the  load  be  placed  to  secure  the 
least  draft  ?    The  greatest  ? 

588.  How  much  less  draft  when  load  is  on  hind 
wheels  than  when  on  front  wheels  in  pasture  field?  In 
a  dry  meadow  ?    What  per  cent  less  ? 

589.  What  per  cent  less  when  load  is  on  hind  wheels 
than  on  one  side  in  pasture  field  ?    In  dry  meadow  ? 

590.  What  per  cent  less  when  load  is  on  the  hind 
wheels  than  when  distributed  equally  on  four  wheels  in 
pasture  field?    In  dry  meadow? 

591.  If  2,000  pounds  may  be  hauled  with  an  expendi- 
ture of  130  pounds  of  draft  when  the  load  is  placed  on 


FARM    MECHANICS. 


167 


front  wheels,  how  many  pounds  may  be  hauled  with  the 
same  draft  when  the  load  is  placed  on  hind  wheels  ? 

592.  If  2,000  pounds  may  be  hauled  with  an  expendi- 
ture of  109  pounds  of  draft  when  load  is  distributed 
equally  on  the  four  wheels,  how  many  pounds  may  be 
hauled  with  the  same  draft  when  the  load  is  placed  on  the 
hind  wheels? 


Draft  of 

Some  Other  Farm  Implements. 

Implements 

Condition 

Draft 

Subsoil 

10  inches  deep 

504 

Mowing  machine 

5  foot  cut 

246 

Sod  plow  with  coulter.  .  . 
Sod  plow  with  coulter. .  . 

Soil  drj'  and  hard  and  furrow  10  inches  by 

6  inches 
Soil  in  best  condition  and  furrow  10  inches 

by  6  inches 

516 
212 

Sod  plow  without  coulter 
Sod  plow  without  coulter 

Soil  hard  and  dry  and  furrow  10  inches  by 

6  inches 
Soil  in  best  condition 

648 
267 

Level    road,    slightly    muddy,    load    1,000 
pounds 

352 

Oral  Problems. 

593.  How  many  horses  would  be  used  in  each  instance 
as  suggested  by  draft?  Consider  weight  of  horse,  and 
rate  he  should  walk  per  hour  when  working  10  hours  per 
day  ?  Make  estimate  only  in  round  numbers  and  approx- 
imately. 

The  effect  of  grades.  A  grade  may  be  ascending  or 
descending.  If  ascending  the  draft  is  increased;  if  de- 
scending, it  is  decreased.    The  amount  of  increase  or  de- 


168 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


crease  does  not  depend  upon  the  amount  of  draft  on  the 
level,  but  only  upon  the  total  weight  of  the  load  and  the 
slope  of  the  grade.  The  slope  of  a  grade  is  the  ratio  of 
the  rise  to  the  horizontal  distance.  A  rise  of  2  feet  in 
40  feet  gives  a  slope  of  one-twentieth  or  a  grade  of  1  to  20. 

594.     What  is  the  grade  or  slope  of  a  hill  having  a  rise 
of  3  feet  in  90  feet?    Six  inches  in  8  feet? 


Fattening  Steers. 


595.  How  much  rise  in  going  V^  mile  up  a  slope  of  2 
to  50  ?  How  much  fall  in  going  down  such  a  slope  a  dis- 
tance of  300  feet  ? 

A  grade  is  frequently  expressed  as  a  per  cent  instead 
of  as  a  ratio.  The  per  cent  of  a  grade  is  the  per  cent 
of  the  rise  as  compared  with  the  horizontal  distance. 
A  rise  of  2  feet  in  50  feet,  i.  e.,  of  4  feet  in  a  hundred 
feet,  is  called  a  4  per  cent  grade;  7^  feet  in  a  hundred 
would  be  a  7^  per  cent  grade.  A  grade  may  also  be  ex- 
pressed in  degrees — i.  e.,  the  angle  it  makes  with  the  hori- 
zontal. 


FARM    MECHANICS.  169 

596.  What  per  cent  is  a  grade  having  a  rise  of  2^^ 
feet  in  80  feet?  Of  53  feet  in  a  mile?  Two  inches  in  2 
feet? 

597.  In  a  3  per  cent  grade  what  is  the  rise  in  800  feet  ? 
What  distance  down  the  grade  would  give  a  fall  of  15 
feet? 

For  grades  less  than  20  per  cent  a  very  good  approxi- 
mate rule  for  calculating  the  draft  is  the  following: 

The  draft  up  a  grade  whose  per  cent  is  known  is  equal 
to  the  draft  on  the  level,  increased  by  a  quantity  which 
is  equal  to  the  grade  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  of 
the  load.  The  draft  down  a  grade  is  equal  to  the  draft  on 
the  level  decreased  by  this  quantity. 

598.  The  draft  of  a  total  load  of  3,000  pounds  on  a 

certain  level  road  is  200  pounds.    What  is  the  draft  on  a 

4  per  cent  grade  on  the  same  road  ? 

Process : 

3,000  X  .04  =  120 
200  +  120  =  320  pounds  draft  up  grade. 
200  —  120  =    80  pounds  draft  down  grade. 

599.  In  the  above  problem  suppose  the  grade  to  be 
10  per  cent,  find  the  draft  up  grade.  What  would  be  the 
draft  in  going  down  this  grade? 

600.  A  total  load  of  4,500  pounds  has  a  draft  on  a  cer- 
tain level  road  of  100  pounds  per  ton.  What  is  the  draft 
up  a  3  per  cent  grade  ?  Down  a  5  per  cent  grade  ?  Up  a 
12  per  cent  grade  ?    Down  a  12  per  cent  grade  ? 

601.  If  a  2,500-pound  load  is  found  to  have  150 
pounds  draft  on  a  certain  level  road,  what  is  the  per  cent 
grade  down  which  the  draft  will  be  zero  ?  What  will  be 
the  draft  up  this  grade  ? 

602.  At  what  rate  may  a  team  of  1,500-pound  horses 
draw  a  load,  including  the  wagon,  of  two  tons  on  a  level 
road  when  the  total  draft  is  160  pounds  per  ton?     At 


170 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


what  rate  up  a  5  per  cent  grade?     Down  a  5  per  cent 
grade?    Down  a  10  per  cent  grade? 

603.  If  in  the  preceding  problem  the  team  is  required 
to  walk  at  the  rate  of  2^  miles  an  hour  up  a  5  per  cent 
grade,  what  portion  of  the  time  should  it  be  allowed  to 
rest? 

Measuring  a  Grade. 

The  slope  of  a  grade  may  be  easily  determined  by 
means  of  a  level  and  a  rule.  A  board  resting  along  the 
grade  will  facilitate  the  measurement.    The  level  should 


How  TO  Measure  Grade  with  Level  and  Rule. 

be  placed  in  horizontal  position,  with  one  end  resting  on 
the  board  or  ground  and  the  other  pointing  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  slope.  With  the  rule  measure  the  vertical 
distance  between  the  lower  edge  of  other  end  of  the  level 
and  the  board  or  ground.  The  ratio  of  this  distance  to  the 
length  of  the  level  is  the  slope  of  the  grade.  If  the  slope 
be  multiplied  by  100  the  per  cent  of  the  grade  is  obtained. 

604.  In  the  above  figure  the  level  is  24  inches  long  and 
the  vertical  distance  is  2^  inches.  What  is  the  per  cent 
grade  ?    Slope  ? 

605.  Determine  approximately  some  of  the  grades  on 
the  roads  in  your  vicinity.  What  is  the  steepest  grade 
over  which  you  must  haul  in  going  to  market? 


CHAPTER  XI. 

FARM   BUILDINGS. 

The  total  value  of  permanent  buildings  on  farms  in 
1910  was  over  $16,000,000,000.  Of  this  amount  over 
$3,500,000,000  were  invested  in  farm  buildirigs.  When  a 
farmer  wishes  to  build  a  house  or  a  barn,  he  plans 
it  according  to  his  wishes  and  needs,  and  engages  a  car- 
penter, who  prepares  a  bill  of  materials  and  an  estimate 
of  the  cost  of  the  building. 

Bills  of  materials.  An  itemized  statement  of  the  lum- 
ber and  other  supplies  necessary  for  a  building  is  called  a 
bill  of  materials.  Lumber  is  sold  at  so  much  "per  M," 
meaning  per  1,000  feet  board  measure.  One  foot  board 
measure  (B.  M.)  is  a  piece  of  lumber  having  an  area  of 
one  square  foot  on  one  surface,  and  a  thickness  of  not 
more  than  1  inch.  The  sign  "x"  means  "by" ;  the  sign 
"feet,"  and  the  sign  "  "  "  means  "inches." 


How  many  feet  B.  M.  in  9  boards  8'  x  2'  and  1" 
thick? 

607.  In  a  %-inch  board  6'  x  10''  ?  6'  x  8"  ?    6'  x  16''  ? 
10'  X  18"  ? 

608.  In  a  board  or  plank  24'  x  18"  x  3>4''  ? 
Process : 

18  inches  ^  VA  feet;  3j4  inches  must  be  taken  as  4  inches. 
24  X  1^  X  4  =  144.  Ans.  144  feet  B.  M. 

609.  8'xl2"x4"?    16'x8"x2"?    24'x6"x4i^"? 

610.  8'  X  8"  X  8"?    16"  x  8"  x  10"?    20'  x  6>^"  x 
8>^"? 

171 


FARM    BUILDINGS. 


173 


611.     Find  the  number  of  feet  B.  M.  in  each  of  the  fol- 


lowing items : 


12  pieces,  2  x  6  in.  x  18  ft.  long. 

8  pieces,  2  x  6  in.  x  16  ft.  long. 
54  pieces,  2  x  6  in.  x  14  ft.  long. 
44  pieces,  2  x  6  in.  x  13  ft.  long. 
90  pieces,  2  x  6  in.  x  10  ft.  long. 

4  pieces,  4  x  6  in.  x  20  ft.  long. 
32  pieces,  2  x  4  in.  x  10  ft.  long. 
30  pieces,  2  x  4  in,  x    8  ft.  long. 


Small  Barn,  36  by  40  Feet. 

Width  three  spans,  12  feet  plus  12  feet,  plus  12  feet  equals  36  feet.  Length  four 
spans,  10  feet  plus  10  feet  plus  10  feet  plus  10  feet  equals  40  feet.  Height,  20 
feet.  Gables,  8  feet.  Loft,  20  feet.  Gable  roof,  one-third  pitch.  Vertical 
siding,  shingle  roof. 


612.  What  is  the  total  number  of  feet  (B.  M.)  in  this 
bill  of  materials? 

613.  At  $45  per  M,  how  much  did  this  lumber  cost  ? 


174  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

614.  How  many  feet  (B.  M.)  in  the  following  bill  of 
rough  timber? 

300  lineal  feet  bridging,  1x2  inches 
1,440  square  feet  loft  boards  and 
2,000  square  feet  roof  boards? 

615.  At  $28  per  M,  how  much  did  this  lumber  cost  ? 

Building  a  Barn. 

For  the  barn  shown  in  the  cut  on  page  173  the  follow- 
ing bill  of  materials  is  required : 
Heavy  timbers : 


27  pieces  2  in. 

X 

10  in. 

X  12  ft. 

3  pieces  2  in. 

X 

10  in. 

X  18  ft. 

6  pieces  2  in. 

X 

10  in. 

X  6  ft. 

6  pieces  2  in. 

X 

8  in. 

X  23  ft. 

46  pieces  2  in. 

X 

8  in. 

X  20  ft. 

8  pieces  2  in. 

X 

8  in. 

X  18  ft. 

6  pieces  2  in. 

X 

8  in. 

X  16  ft. 

22  pieces  2  in. 

X 

8  in. 

X  12  ft. 

170  pieces  2  in. 

X 

8  in. 

X  10  ft. 

30  pieces  2  in. 

X 

8  in. 

X  8  ft. 

16  pieces  2  in. 

X 

6  in. 

X  22  ft. 

Siding  and  facing: 

3,600  square  feet  of  siding. 
186  square  feet  facing,  ^  x  5  inches. 

616.  How  many  feet  (B.  M.)  does  this  part  of  the 
bill  of  materials  include? 

617.  At  $30  per  M  how  much  did  this  lumber  cost  ? 

618.  There  were  16,000  shingles  for  the  roof  at  $4.75 
per  M ;  100  pounds  of  60d  spikes,  100  pounds  40d  spikes, 
300  pounds  20d  spikes,  100  pounds  8d  nails,  70  pounds 
4d  nails,  all  of  which  are  purchased  at  a  cost  of  5  cents 
per  pound.    What  will  these  materials  cost  ? 

619.  There  were  also  used  two  tracks  20  feet  long  at 
10  cents  per  foot ;  two  pair  hangers  at  75  cents  each ;  eight 
pair    coop    hinges    at    50    cents    each ;    eight    windows, 


FARM    BUILDINGS. 


175 


24"  X  36",  at  $2  each.     What  is  the  total  cost  of  these 
items  ? 

620.  To  complete  the  building  there  were  used  the 
following :  21  foundation  posts  at  25  cents  each ;  painting, 
$40 ;  tin  work,  $12 ;  the  work  of  one  carpenter  for  30  days 


I6'X   20' 
Horse  Stable 


M 


^S'  ^ 


a  \-\ 


ll  e 


Fee  d     Room 
8'  X  20' 


a  r^  g  s  r  s 


C0W6 


Box  Stall 
lO'x  12' 


Floor  Plan  of  Small  Barn. 


at  $3.50  a  day ;  the  work  of  a  helper  for  30  days  at  $2  a 
day.    What  is  the  cost  of  these  items? 

621.     Allowing  $25  for  extras,  what  was  the  total  cost 
of  the  barn? 

Roofing.     An   area   containing   100   square   feet   and 
called   a  square  is   the   unit  of   measure   for   roofing. 


176  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

Shingles  are  16  inches  long  and  average  usually  4  inches 
wide.  When  laid  4^  inches  to  the  weather,  each  average 
shingle  will  cover  4  x  4^  or  18  square  inches.  Eight 
average  shingles  will,  therefore,  cover  1  square  foot  and 
800  shingles  will  cover  a  square.  On  account  of  waste,  it 
is  better  in  making  an  estimate  to  allow  900  or  1,000 
shingles  per  square.  The  pitch  of  the  roof  should  never 
be  less  than  one-third ;  that  is,  in  a  building  60  feet  wide, 
the  comb  or  peak  of  the  roof  should  be  at  least  one-third 
of  30  feet  or  10  feet  higher  than  the  plates  on  which  the 
rafters  rest.  A  pitch  of  one-half  gives  a  much  better  pro- 
tection from  rain  and  melting  snow  and  makes  a  more 
durable  roof. 

622.  Allowing  800  shingles  per  square,  how  many 
thousand  would  be  required  for  the  roof  of  a  house  35 
feet  long,  the  length  of  the  rafters  on  each  side  of  the  roof 
being  14  feet? 

623.  How  many  average  shingles  are  required  per 
square  if  laid  4  inches  to  the  weather  ?    3  inches  ? 

624.  Allowing  900  shingles  per  square,  how  many 
thousand  are  required  for  a  house  40  feet  long,  if  the 
rafters  are  16  feet  long? 

Length  of  rafters.  If  the  w^idth  of  a  building  and 
the  pitch  of  the  roof  be  known,  the  length  of  the  rafters 
may  be  calculated  by  the  following  rule : 

Square  each  of  the  two  legs  of  the  right-angled  triangle 
of  which  the  rafter  is  the  hypothenuse,  add  these  squares 
and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  sum.  The  result  is  the 
length  of  the  rafter.  These  lengths  may  include  the  over- 
hang, as  in  the  following  problem. 

625.  How  long  are  the  rafters  of  a  barn  30  feet  wide, 
when  the  pitch  is  three-fifths  and  the  overhang  is  1  foot? 


FARM    BUILDINGS. 


177 


Process : 
One-half  of  30  feet  =  15  feet        15  feet  +  1  foot  =  16  feet. 
Three-fifths  of  16  feet  =  9.6  feet 

16  X  16  =  256.0 
9.6  X  9.6  =     92.2 

348.2 
V348.2  =  18.7  (nearly),  length  of  rafter. 


/ 


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VO 


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J5 


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— > 

I 

,5> 51 


Elevation  of  End  of  Roof  with  Three-fifths  Pitch. 


626.  How  many  shingles  will  be  required  if  the  barn 
in  the  preceding  problem  is  40  feet  long  and  the  roof  pro- 
jects 1  foot  at  each  end? 

627.  How  many  shingles  will  be  required  for  a  build- 
ing 36  feet  by  52  feet,  if  the  roof  has  a  pitch  of  one-half 
and  overhangs  18  inches  on  the  sides  and  12  inches  on 
the  ends  ? 

628.  If  the  length  of  the  rafter^  exclusive  of  the  over- 
hang, is  15  feet,  and  the  width  of  the  building  24  feet, 
what  is  the  height  of  the  ridge  above  the  plate?  What 
is  the  pitch? 

Laths.  One  hundred  laths  are  tied  in  each  bundle. 
This  number  will  cover  5  square  yards. 

629.  How  many  bundles  of  laths  will  be  r-equired  for 
one  side  of  a  room  15  feet  long  and  9  feet  high, 


178  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

Process : 

15  feet  X  9  feet  =  135  square  feet. 
135  -^  9  =  45  square  yards. 
45  -^  5  =    9  bundles. 

630.  How  many  bundles  of  laths  will  be  required  for 
the  sides  and  ceiling  of  a  room  20  feet  long,  15  feet  wide, 
and  9  feet  high,  allowing  for  two  windows  3'  6"  x  5',  one 
door  3' 6"  x7'? 

631.  A  certain  house  contains  eight  rooms,  four  of 
which  are  20/ x  15' x  9',  and  four  15'xl5'x9'.  How 
many  bundles  of  laths  will  be  required  for  all  walls  and 
ceilings,  allowing  190  square  yards  for  doors,  windows, 
baseboards,  and  fireplaces? 

Plastering.  The  unit  for  measuring  plastering  is 
the  square  yard. 

The  following  materials  are  required  for  100  square 
yards  of  plastering,  two  coats : 

3y2  barrels  of  lime, 

iH  bushels  of  hair  or  fiber, 

1%  cubic  yards  of  good  sand. 

632.  How  many  barrels  of  lime  are  needed  for  plas- 
tering the  walls  and  ceiling  of  a  room  17'  4"  x  15'  8"  x 
10'? 

633.  How  many  bushels  of  hair  or  fiber? 

634.  How  many  cubic  yards  of  sand? 

635.  A  farm  house  just  built  has  the  following  rooms, 
walls  and  ceilings  of  which  are  to  be  plastered :  On  the 
first  floor :  hall,  8'  x  35' ;  dining  room,  15'  x  20' ;  kitchen, 
15'  X  15'  and  a  living  room,  20'  x  35'  ;  on  the  second 
floor  are  the  same  number  of  rooms,  including 
the  hall  and  bathroom,  and  of  the  same  size  as 
on  first  floor.  The  height  from  the  floor  to  the  ceil- 
ing is  9'  for  the  first  floor,  and  8"  for  the  second  floor. 
How  many  square  yards  of  surface  for  the  entire  house? 


FARM    BUILDINGS.  179 

636.  There  are  24  windows,  each  3'  6"  x  5',  in  the 
house.  How  many  square  yards  are  taken  up  by  win- 
dows? 

637.  There  are  three  folding  doors,  each  6'  x  7';  a 
front  door,  5'  x  7' ;  ten  doors,  3'  x  7'.  How  many  square 
yards  are  taken  up  by  door  space  ? 

638.  Deducting  door  space  and  window  space,  how 
many  square  yards  are  left  to  be  plastered  ? 

639.  How  many  barrels  of  lime  will  be  needed  for  two 
coats  of  plaster  for  this  house? 

640.  How  many  bushels  of  hair  or  fiber? 

641.  How  many  yards  of  sand? 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ROADS. 

Farmers  suffer  great  inconvenience  and  great  money 
loss  on  account  of  bad  roads.  Good  roads,  on  the  other 
hand,  make  country  life  almost  ideal.  Good  roads  econo- 
mize time  and  energy  in  transportation ;  reduce  wear  and 
tear  on  horses,  harnesses  and  vehicles ;  increase  the  value 
of  farm  land.  Good  roads  denote  progressiveness  and 
prosperity.  Bad  roads  denote  indifference  and  thriftless- 
ness. 

Losses  Due  to  Bad  Roads. 

642.  The  estimated  cost  of  hauling  wheat  over  bad 
roads  a  distance  of  10  miles  is  6  cents  a  bushel ;  over  good 
roads,  3  cents.  What  is  the  loss  to  a  farmer  10  miles 
from  market  who  annually  sells  1,000  bushels  of  wheat? 
If  five  miles  from  market? 

643.  Not  more  than  four  bales  of  cotton  can  be  hauled 
with  a  pair  of  1,200-pound  horses  over  bad  roads,  while 
eight  bales  may  be  hauled  with  the  same  horses  over  good 
roads.  If  it  now  costs  75  cents  a  bale  to  market  cotton 
over  bad  roads,  what  is  the  saving  to  a  farmer  who  annu- 
ally markets  100  bales  over  good  roads? 

644.  Carefully  made  estimates  show  that  the  annual 
loss  to  a  farmer  because  of  bad  roads  is  76  cents  an  acre. 
What  is  the  loss  to  a  farmer  who  owns  50  acres?  160 
acres?    420  acres? 

645.  Carefully  made  estimates  show  that  good  roads 
increase  the  value  of  land  $6.48  an  acre.  How  much  is 
this  increase  for  a  farm  of  50  acres?  80  acres?  640 
acres  ? 

180 


ROADS. 


181 


646.  Good  roads  increase  the  appraisement  for  taxa- 
tion by  an  average  amount  of  $4  an  acre  and  the  average 
tax  rate  is  l}i  per  cent.  What  is  the  average  annual  in- 
crease of  taxes  an  acre.  How  much  is  this  increase  for 
a  farm  of  50  acres?  160  acres?  A  township  six  miles 
square  ? 

647.  If  the  average  saving  in  the  marketing  of  wheat 
is  3  cents  a  bushel,  how  many  bushels  of  wheat  on  a  farm 
of  50  acres  will  pay  the  entire  increase  in  taxes? 


Making  the  Old  Roads  Better. 

This  roadbed  was  smoothed  and  slightly  rounded  with  road  scraper,  and  then 
oiled.  After  each  rain,  it  is  gone  over  with  a  road  drag  to  keep  it  smooth  and 
in  good  condition. 


648.  Carefully  made  estimates  show  that  the  average 
annual  loss  per  100  acres,  because  of  bad  roads,  is  $76.28. 
What  is  the  annual  loss  for  the  whole  country,  the  num- 
ber of  acres  of  improved  farming  lands  being  478,452,- 
000? 

649.  The  estimated  average  cost  of  converting  the 
common  public  roads  of  the  United  States  into  improved 


182  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

highways  is  $1,146  a  mile.  How  many  miles  of  such 
roads  might  be  made  at  a  cost  of  a  single  battleship,  cost- 
ing $10,000,000  ? 

650.  The  annual  expenditures  in  our  War  and  Navy 
Departments  are  $160,000,000.  If  these  were  reduced 
one-half  how  many  miles  of  roads  might  be  made  into 
improved  highways  annually  with  the  saving? 


Why  Good  Roads  Pay. 

They  save  horse  flesh  and  time.     Many  times  larger  loads  may  be  hauled  over 
good  roads  than  over  poor  ones. 


651.  The  little  city  of  Haslar,  in  the  Hartz  Mountains, 
owns  a  spruce  forest  of  7,000  acres,  which  by  careful 
management  permits  an  annual  cut  of  7,300,000  square 
feet  of  wood  per  annum.  The  city  macadamized  the 
roads  leading  through  the  forest  at  an  expense  of  $25,000. 
The  average  cost  of  hauling  1,000  feet  B.  M.  on  the  old 
roads  was  $2.70.  On  the  new  roads  the  cost  is  $1.70. 
What  is  the  income  on  the  investment  in  new  roads  from 
the  saving  in  hauling  alone? 


ROADS.  183 

Draft  in  pounds  required  to  draw  one  ton  over  roads 
composed  of  different  materials. 

Various  Road  Surfaces. 

Loose  sand  road,  448 

Loose  gravel  (4  inches)  road,  222 

Common  gravel  road,  147 

Good  gravel  road,  88 

Ordinary  dirt  road,  224 

Hard  clay  road,  112 

Hard  dry  dirt  road,  89 

Common  macadam  road,  64 

Hard  and  smooth  macadam  road,  46 

Asphalt  street,  17 

Iron  railway,  8 

652.  If  a  team  of  horses  can  draw  one  ton  on  a  loose 
sand  road,  how  much  can  it  draw  on  a  common  macadam 
road? 

653.  Four  bales  of  cotton  are  hauled  over  a  common 
gravel  road.  How  many  bales  may  be  hauled  over  a 
common  macadam  road  with  the  same  force? 

654.  A  load  of  35  bushels  of  wheat  is  hauled  over  an 
ordinary  dirt  road.  How  many  bushels  may  be  hauled 
over  a  common  macadam  road,  using  the  same  force? 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

FARM  DRAINAGE. 

Soil  drainage  consists  in  the  removal  of  the  surplus 
water  from  the  soil.  Some  lands  are  naturally  drained, 
while  others  must  be  drained  artificially.  The  most 
economical  and  durable  artificial  drain  is  the  earthen  tile. 
To  be  productive  a  soil  must  contain  enough  water  to 
dissolve  the  nutrient  which  plants  require.  More  than 
this  amount  of  moisture  is  not  beneficial  to  the  soil  or  to 
the  growing  plant.  The  surplus  water  fills  the  pores  of 
the  soil,  thus  excluding  the  air,  and  suffocating  the  plant. 

Value  of  Drainage. 

655.  A  farmer  in  northern  Ohio  continually  failed 
in  raising  crops  because  his  land  was  wet.  He  was  in- 
duced to  tile-drain  13  acres,  which  was  done  at  a  cost 
of  $23  an  acre.  What  was  the  total  cost  of  draining  the 
field? 

656.  After  the  field  was  drained  this  farmer  sowed  it 
in  wheat,  and  on  10  acres  harvested  46^  bushels  an  acre, 
which  was  sold  for  $1  a  bushel.  What  sum  was  realized 
for  this  wheat? 

657.  He  claims  this  result  was  due  to  his  investment 
in  tile  drains.  What  amount  an  acre  was  realized  on  this 
wheat  crop  after  paying  the  total  cost  of  draining  the  13 
acres  ? 

658.  Encouraged  by  the  results  of  drainage,  this 
farmer  tile-drained  a  part  of  his  young  orchard.  On  land 
where  tile  drains  had  been  partially  laid  25  trees  out  of  a 

184 


FARM    DRAINAGE.  185 

total  of  175  died.    What  was  the  percentage  of  trees  that 
died? 

659.  On  land  that  had  not  been  tiled  49  trees  out  of  91 
died.    What  was  the  percentage  of  trees  that  died? 

660.  This  same  farmer  reports  that  the  trees  on  the 
tiled  land  yielded  50  per  cent  more  fruit  than  those  on 
the  untiled  land.  If  30  trees  were  growing  on  each  acre, 
what  is  the  difference  when  there  is  a  yield  of  10  bushels 
a  tree  where  no  tiling  was  done  ? 


,  ,  ■       .   .„=        '  "''"   "^>''    '  ,'"  .■■■^":^  ,'v-"^' 

"    "» -S^"   "-^H^^ 

.'   .-'       '"' '' '.,.„■    ~"'  ■■  ^--.Z.  ,1,.'       -       ■--  :     "^v^ 

^^2 

Old  Land  Remade  by  Drainage, 

This  land  was  formerly  hardly  worth  the  taxes.  It  was  reclaimed  by  drain- 
age. Note  the  excellent  crop  of  beans  in  the  foreground  and  corn  in  the  back- 
ground. 

661.  What  is  the  money  gain  an  acre  by  tiling  when 
apples  are  worth  50  cents  a  bushel? 

662.  Suppose  five  acres,  30  trees  per  acre  of  apple 
trees,  are  planted  on  tiled  land,  and  five  acres,  30  trees 
per  acre,  planted  on  untiled  land.  On  the  tiled  land  14 
per  cent  of  the  trees  die,  while  on  the  untiled  land  54  per 
cent  die.  For  20  years  the  average  annual  production  of 
apples  per  living  tree  on  untiled  land  is  eight  bushels,  and 
on  the  tiled  land  50  per  cent  more.  What  is  the  produc- 
tion of  apples  in  bushels  for  each  five  acres  during  20 
years'  time? 


186 


FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


663.  If  the  selling  price  of  apples  averaged  during 
that  time  50  cents  a  bushel,  what  was  the  total  value  of 
the  crop  on  the  undrained  five  acres  ? 

664.  The  total  value  on  the  tiled  five  acres  ? 

665.  What  is  the  percentage  difference  between  the 
tiled  and  untiled  areas  for  the  period  of  20  years  ? 

Size  of  tiles.  The  size  of  the  tile  to  be  used  in  a  rnain 
will  depend  on  the  fall,  the  area  to  be  drained,  and  the 
water  delivered  by  sub-mains  and  laterals.  To  determine 
the  number  of  acres  that  a  tile  main  of  given  size  and 
grade  will  drain,  multiply  the  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per 
second  for  a  tile  of  the  given  size  when  laid  on  a  one 
per  cent  grade,  by  the  square  root  of  the  per  cent  of  the 
grade  in  question,  and  this  product  by  the  proper  con- 
stant. This  constant  is  24  when  it  is  desired  that  the 
main  shall  be  able  to  carry  off  in  24  hours  an  amount  of 
water  equal  to  a  depth  of  one  inch  over  the  area  drained ; 
48,  if  one-half  inch;  96,  if  one-fourth  inch.  This 
constant  is  known  as  the  standard.  For  most  of  the  open 
soils  the  one-fourth  inch  standard  is  used  in  practice,  and 
is  found  to  be  satisfactory. 


Table  I. 


Table  II. 


Discharge  of       Grade  1-100 
Tiles                  (Elliott) 

Grades  and  square  roots 

Diameter  of 
tile  in  inches 

Discharge  in 

cubic  feet  per 

second 

Fall  per 
100  feet 

Square  root 
of  grade 

4 
6 
8 

10 
12 
IS 
20 

0.16 
0.49 
1.11 
2.05 
3.40 
6.29 
13.85 

In  inches 
1 
2 
3 
6 

9 

12 

In  feet 
0.09 
0.16 
0.25 
0.50 

0.75 
1.00 

0.30 
0.40 
0.50 
0.70 

0.87 
1.00 

FARM  DRAINAGE.  187 

666.  How  many  acres  will  a  10-inch  main  drain  when 
laid  upon  a  grade  of  2  inches  per  100  feet,  using  the  half- 
inch  standard? 

Process : 

D  =  discharge  of  the  tile   (Table  I). 

R  =  square  root  of  grade  (Table  II). 

S  =:  standard. 

A  =  area  in  acres  to  be  drained. 

A  =  D  X  R  X  S. 

A  =  2.05  X  -40  X  48  =  39  acres. 

667.  How  many  acres  will  a  10-inch  main  drain  when 
laid  upon  a  grade  of  3  inches  per  100  feet,  using  the  half- 
inch  standard  ?    The  quarter-inch  standard  ? 

668.  How  many  acres  will  a  6-inch  main  drain  when 
laid  on  a  grade  of  3  inches  per  100  feet,  using  the  quarter- 
inch  standard?    The  half -inch? 

669.  How  many  acres  will  a  6-inch  main  drain  when 
laid  on  a  grade  of  6  inches  pver  100  feet  using  the  quarter- 
inch  standard  ?    The  half-inch  ? 

670.  How  many  acres  will  a  6-inch  main  drain  when 
laid  on  a  grade  of  9  inches  per  100  feet,  using  the  half- 
inch  standard  ?    The  inch  ? 

671.  How  many  acres  will  a  6-inch  main  drain  when 
laid  on  a  grade  of  12  inches  per  100  feet,  using  the  half- 
inch  standard  ?    The  quarter-inch  ? 

672.  How  many  acres  will  a  4-inch  main  drain  when 
laid  on  a  grade  of  6  inches  per  100  feet,  using  the  half- 
inch  standard?    The  quarter-inch?    The  inch? 

673.  How  large  a  main  should  be  used  on  a  grade  of 
6  inches  per  100  feet  to  drain  230  acres,  using  the  quarter- 
inch  standard?    The  inch? 

674.  How  large  a  main  should  be  used  laid  on  a  grade 


188  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

of  2  inches  per  100  feet  to  drain  six  acres,  using  the  quar- 
ter-inch standard  ?    60  acres  ? 

Important  truth.  In  addition  to  a  careful  calculation 
of  the  size  of  drains  good  judgment  must  be  used  in  the 
application  of  the  results.  A  tract  of  land  may  have  such 
surface  conditions  that  the  underdrains  will  be  called  upon 
to  take  care  of  a  much  larger  area  than  at  first  apparent. 
It  is  also  important  to  take  into  account  the  facilities  for 
natural  drainage.  Too  large  a  tile  may  involve  an  ex- 
pense greater  than  the  returns  would  warrant,  while  too 
small  a  tile  may  entail  loss  that  will  soon  greatly  exceed 
the  saving  in  first  cost. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

SILOS. 

Animals  do  best  when  feeding  upon  green  and  succu- 
lent pastures.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  how- 
ever, these  are  not  available  during  the  winter  season. 
The  silo  is  a  very  satisfactory  substitute,  since  it  is  a  very 
effective  method  of  preserving  green  forage.  Silos  do 
for  live  stock  what  the  canning  of  fruit  and  vegetables 
does  for  man.  Forage  for  live  stock  when  left  in  the 
field  deteriorates  and  decays  or  matures  and  becomes  dry 
and  less  palatable;  when  put  into  a  silo  it  holds  its  succu- 
lence and  freshness  and  remains  soft  and  appetizing.  It 
is  thus  available  as  a  choice  food  for  all  classes  of  live 
stock  at  a  time  when  most  needed.  A  silo  enables  the 
farmer  to  preserve  a  larger  quantity  of  food  material 
than  is  possible  by  any  other  system ;  it  furnishes  a  feed 
of  known  and  uniform  quality ;  it  provides  the  most  eco- 
nomical form  of  storage ;  it  removes  much  of  the  drudg- 
ery and  hardship  incidental  to  live  stock  feeding. 

Form  of  construction.  A  good  silo  is  so  constructed 
as  to  be  practically  air-tight,  thus  excluding  the  bacteria 
that  cause  deterioration.  A  silo  may  be  round,  square,  or 
rectilineal  in  form.  The  round  is  the  most  popular.  It 
contains  less  waste  space,  presents  much  greater  strength, 
and  for  a  given  capacity  requires  less  lumber  than  any 
other  form.  The  advantage  of  the  circular  form  over 
the  square  is  not  so  great  for  smaller  silos,  particularly 
when  simplicity  of  construction  is  taken  into  account,  as 
for  larger. 

The  relation  of  the  form  of  construction  to  capacity  is 
illustrated  by  the  three  following  types : 


190 


FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


f.600  sq.ft. 


1.600  sq.ft. 


80' 


The  Area  Is  Just  the  Same. 

If  each  were  a  silo,  and  you  bought  the  lumber,  would  there  be  any  difference 
in  quantity  required? 


675.  What  is  the  distance  around  (the  perimeter  of )  a 
circular  silo  20  feet  in  diameter  ? 

Process :     Multiply  the  diameter  by  3.1416. 

Note. — The  number  3.14  as  multiplier  is  sufficiently  accurate 
for  most  farm  work. 

20  X  3.14  =  62.8  feet.     Ans. 

676.  What  is  the  base  area  of  a  circular  silo  20  feet 
in  diameter? 

Process :  Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  0.7854  or  the 
square  of  the  radius  by  3.1416  or  3.14. 

20  X  20  X  0.7854  =  314  square  feet.     Ans. 

677.  What  is  the  area  of  a  circular  silo  12  feet  in 
diameter?  25  feet?  32  feet?  40  feet?  What  is  the 
perimeter  in  .each  case  ? 

678.  What  is  the  diameter  of  a  circular  silo  having  a 

base  or  surface  area  of  1,600  square  feet? 

Process :  Divide  the  area  by  0.7854  and  take  square  root  of  the 
result. 


1,600  -^  0.7854  =  2,024  V2,024  =  45.1  feet,  diameter. 

679.  What  is  the  circumference  or  distance  around  the 
inside  wall  of  a  silo  having  a  surface  area  of  1,600  square 
feet? 

680.  What  is  the  distance  around  a  square  silo  con- 
taining a  surface  area  of  1,600  square  feet? 


SILOS.  191 

681.  What  is  the  distance  around  a  rectangular  silo,  20 
feet  wide  and  80  feet  long,  that  also  contains  an  area  of 
1,600  square  feet? 

682.  Since  the  round  silo  incloses  the  greatest  space 
in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  wall  inclosing  it,  what 
is  the  percentage  of  saving  in  lumber  for  a  silo  having  a 
surface  area  of  1,600  square  feet  when  the  round  form 
is  adopted  rather  than  the  rectangular? 

683.  What  is  the  percentage  of  saving  when  the  round 
form  is  adopted  rather  than  the  square? 

684.  A  farmer  has  built  a  silo  30  feet  square  and 
30  feet  high.  How  many  feet  (B.  M.)  of  lumber 
were  required  for  the  walls,  plank  lumber  3  inches  thick 
being  used  ? 

685.  His  neighbor  at  the  same  time  built  a  round  silo 
having  the  same  height  and  an  equal  capacity.  He  also 
used  plank  lumber  3  inches  thick.  How  many  feet  (B. 
M.)  were  required  for  the  wall? 

686.  Lumber  was  purchased  at  $22  per  M  (B.  M.) ; 
what  was  the  cost  of  that  used  in  the  wall  of  the  square 
silo?    Round  silo?    What  was  the  difference  in  cost? 

Proper  diameter  of  silo.  Silage  of  all  kinds  readily 
spoils  unless  it  be  fed  regularly,  evenly,  and  at  a  suffi- 
cient rate.  Experience  has  taught  that  a  feeding  surface 
of  at  least  2  inches  depth  should  be  removed  daily.  Where 
5  or  6  inches  are  daily  fed,  there  is  but  little  waste  of  food 
materials.  It  is  n-ecessary  so  to  build  the  silo  that  its 
diameter  may  be  in  keeping  with  the  number  of  cattle 
to  be  fed.  If  made  too  large  less  than  2  inches  will  be 
fed  daily,  hence  there  will  be  waste  and  loss.  Experi- 
ments show  that  to  secure  most  satisfactory  results,  a 
horizontal  feeding  surface  of  5  square  feet  per  cow  should 
]be  proyidgd. 


192  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

687.  For  a  herd  of  30  cows,  how  many  square  feet  of 
feed  surface  are  required  in  the  silo? 

688.  What  is  the  diameter  of  the  round  silo,  that  pro- 
vides a  horizontal  feeding  surface  of  5  square  feet  daily 
for  25  cows? 

Process :  25  X  5  =  125  square  feet  area  of  feeding  surface 
required. 

125  ^  .7854  =  159.15 
VT59T5  —  12.6,  diameter  of  silo. 


Dairy  Herd  and  Barns. 

Note  the  silo  in  the  center.     The  silo  is  indispensable  if  dairy  products  are  to  be 
secured  at  the  greatest  economy. 

689.  What  diameter  of  silo  is  required  for  a  herd  of 
20  cows,  each  cow  to  have  5  square  feet  of  feeding  space? 

690.  What  diameter  of  silo  is  required  for  a  herd  of 
30  cows  when  a  feeding  surface  of  5  square  feet  is  given 
each  cow? 

691.  For  a  herd  of  35  cows  ?    Fifty  cows  ? 
Quantity  of  silage  needed.     In  planning  a  silo  the 


SILOS.  193 

quantity  necessary  for  the  year's  supply  must  be  esti- 
mated. The  quantity  of  silage  depends  upon  (1)  the 
amount  fed  daily  to  each  animal,  (2)  number  of  animals 
to  be  fed,  (3)  the  length  of  silage  feeding  period. 

692.  How  many  tons  of  silage  will  be  required  for  a 

dairy  herd  of  25  cows  when  an  average  of  40  pounds  is 

fed  daily  to  each  animal  for  180  days  ? 

Process : 

25  X  40  X180  =  180,000  pounds. 
180,000  -^  2,000  =  90  tons. 

693.  How  many  tons  of  silage  will  be  required  for  a 
dairy  herd  of  30  cows,  the  average  feed  of  40  pounds  be- 
ing given  ? 

694.  A  farmer,  calculating  the  amount  of  silage  neces- 
sary for  his  cattle,  plans  to  feed  20  cows,  each  50  pounds 
daily;  15  cows,  each  40  pounds  daily;  10  cows,  each  30 
pounds  daily ;  and  25  calves,  each  an  average  of  15  pounds 
daily.  How  many  tons  of  silage  will  be  required  for  nine 
months  (270  days)  feeding? 

695.  His  neighbor  plans  to  feed  20  cows,  each  50 
pounds  daily  for  90  days,  then  40  pounds  daily  for  the 
next  90  days,  and  30  pounds  daily  for  the  following  75 
days.  He  also  plans  to  feed  15  other  cows  each  40  pounds 
for  150  days,  and  25  pounds  each  for  the  following  100 
days;  and  also  30  calves  an  average  of  15  pounds  each 
for  180  days.    How  many  tons  of  silage  will  be  required  ? 

Capacity  of  silos.  Corn  silage  weighs  from  25  pounds 
to  50  pounds  per  cubic  foot  according  to  the  depth  in  the 
silo  from  which  it  is  taken,  and  the  amount  of  moisture 
it  contains.  Where  a  silo  is  constructed  and  filled  prop- 
erly, the  average  weight  of  the  contents  will  average  about 
40  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.  This  means  50  cubic  feet 
to  every  ton.  The  capacity  of  a  silo  depends  on  its  depth 
and  diameter.    The  number  of  cattle  to  be  fed  will  con- 


194 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


trol,  in  a  large  measure,  the  diameter  of  the  silo,  while 
the  quantity  demanded  will  influence  the  height  of  the 
silo. 


How  many  cubic  feet  in  a  silo  having  an  inside 
base  area  of  352  square  feet  and  a  height  of  24  feet  ? 

Process :    Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by  the  height. 
352  X  24  =  8,448  cubic  feet. 


Filling  the  Silo. 

The  cut  green  corn  is  blown  into  the  silo  at  the  top.     Silage  makes  one  of 
the  best  farm  feeds. 


697.  How  many  pounds  of  silage  will  the  above  silo 
store  ?    How  many  tons  ? 

698.  What  must  be  the  height  of  a  silo  to  hold  20,000 
cubic  feet,  if  the  area  of  the  base  is  600  square  feet?  To 
hold  350  tons? 

699.  What  should  be  the  size  of  a  silo  for  a  herd  of  25 


SILOS.  195 

cows,  that  are  to  be  fed  40  pounds  each  daily  for  180 
days  ? 

Process : 
1st  part.    25  X  40  X  180  -^  2,000  =  90,  tons  required. 

25  X  5  sq.  ft.  =  125  sq.  ft.,  horizontal  feeding  surface. 

125  -f-  .7854  =  159.15 
V159.15  =  12.6,  diameter  of  the  silo  in  feet. 
2nd  part.    1  ton  occupies  50  cubic  feet. 

90  tons  occupy  4,500  cubic  feet. 

4,500  -^  125  =  36  feet,  height  of  silo. 

700.  What  should  be  the  diameter  and  height  of  a 
round  silo  for  a  herd  of  25  cows  that  are  to  be  fed  30 
pounds  each  daily  for  150  days  ? 

701.  What  should  be  the  diameter  and  height  of  a 
round  silo  for  a  herd  of  25  cows  that  are  to  be  fed  40 
pounds  daily  each  for  90  days  and  30  pounds  each  for  80 
days  ? 

702.  What  should  be  the  diameter  and  height  of  a  silo 
for  a  herd  of  40  cows  that  are  to  be  fed  40  pounds  each 
daily  for  160  days  ? 

703.  What  should  be  the  size  of  a  silo  for  a  herd  of  60 
cows  that  are  to  be  fed  35  pounds  each  daily  for  175  days  ? 

704.  A  round  silo  has  a  diameter  of  20  feet  and  a 
height  of  35  feet;  how  many  tons  of  silage  will  it  hold? 

Process : 

20  X  20  X  0.7854  =  314.16,  area  of  base. 

314.16  X  35  =  10,995.6  cubic  feet. 
10,995.6  -^  50  =  219.9  tons,  capacity  of  silo. 

705.  How  many  tons  of  silage  will  a  silo  hold  that  has 
a  diameter  of  15  feet  and  a  height  of  28  feet  ? 

706.  What  is  the  capacity  of  a  round  silo  24  feet  high 
and  16  feet  in  diameter? 

707.  What  is  the  diflference  in  capacity  between  two 


196  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

silos,  one  a  round  silo  15  feet  in  diameter  and  28  feet 
high,  and  the  other  a  square  silo  15  feet  square  and  28 
feet  high? 

708.  A  round  silo  20  feet  in  diameter  and  30  feet  high 
holds  a  certain  quantity  of  silage.  What  shall  be  the 
diameter  of  another  silo  of  same  height,  that  will  hold 
twice  the  quantity  of  silage  ? 

709.  What  should  be  the  diameter,  that  three  times 
the  quantity  may  be  held  ? 

Staves  required  for  round  stave  silo.  Staves  used  in 
silo  construction  vary  in  length,  width,  and  thickness.  The 
best  length  of  stave  is  the  height  of  the  silo.  If  this  is 
not  possible,  two  lengths,  one  long  and  one  short,  may  be 
used.  The  break  should  be  distributed  at  different 
heights.  The  best  widths  are  6  or  8  inches ;  the  best  thick- 
ness, 2  inches,  although  3  inches  is  often  used. 

710.  A  silo  16  feet  in  diameter  and  26  feet  high  is 
wanted.    How  many  staves,  2x6  inches,  will  be  needed? 

Process :    Divide  the  circumference  by  the  width  of  stave. 

Circumference  of  a  circle  =  diameter  X  3.1416. 

16  X  3.1416  =  50.26  feet,  circumference. 

6  inches  ■=  Vi  foot  in  width. 

50.26  -^y2—  100.52  staves. 

711.  A  silo  20  feet  in  diameter  and  24  feet  high  is 
wanted ;  how  many  staves,  2x6  inches,  will  be  needed  ? 

712.  A  silo  20  feet  in  diameter  and  26  feet  high  is 
wanted;  how  many  staves,  3x8  inches,  will  be  needed? 

713.  A  silo  18  feet  in  diameter  and  36  feet  high  is 
wanted.  Because  of  the  height  it  is  necessary  to  set  the 
staves  in  two  lengths.  How  many  staves,  3x8  inches  and 
20  feet  long,  will  be  required,  provided  all  the  pieces  are 
used  in  building  the  silo  ? 


CHAPTER  XV. 


MEAT  PRODUCTS. 


Farm  animals  when  sold  for  meat  are  usually  sold  on 
foot  at  a  given  price  per  pound  live  weight.  When  they 
are  slaughtered  first,  they  are  sold  at  a  given  price  per 
pound  dressed  weight. 

More  than  one-half  of  our  commercial  meat  products 
are  now  prepared  in 
Chicago  and  a  few  other 
large  cities.  Thousands 
of  animals  are  shipped 
each  day  from  all  parts 
of  the  United  States  to 
these  great  slaughtering 
houses.  The  farmer  may 
consign  his  shipment  of 
fattened  animals  to  a 
live  stock  commission 
merchant,  who  in  turn 
sells  to  buyers  who  are 
constantly  purchasing 
for  butchers  and  pack- 
ing houses ;  or  he  may 
sell  to  a  local  buyer  who 
makes  the  shipment  and 
profits  or  loses   accord-  ^^^^^  ^°^  market. 

inp-   to   hie;    inrlp-mpnt  •    or        Mutton     carcasses     showing     manner     of 
mg   to   nib    JUUgmeni,    or  dressing   ready   for   shipment. 

he    may    slaughter    his 

animals  at  home,  selling  the  meat  to  local  consumers. 

Cattle.  Those  that  possess  the  highest  percentage  of 
valuable  and  high-priced  cuts,  with  a  correspondingly  low 

197 


198 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


percentage  of  offal,  waste,  and  cheap  cuts,  are  the  most 
profitable  to  both  farmer  and  butcher. 

A  high-grade  steer  is  one  whose  meat  possesses  fine 
quality,  and  one  which  is  abundant  in  profitable  parts 
and  small  in  waste  and  offal.  When  slaughtered,  such  an 
animal  will  dress  from  65  to  69  per  cent  of  its  live  weight. 
A  low-grade  or  coarse  steer,  when  slaughtered,  will 
dress  no  more  than  40  to  50  per  cent  of  its  live  weight, 
and  yield  meat  of  poorer  quality  and  of  lower  value  when 
sold  on  the  butcher's  block. 


Retail  Beef  Cuts  and  Weight. 


Chicago  Retail  Dealers'  Method  of  Cutting  Beef. 


A  good  1,200-pound  steer  dresses  about  800  pounds, 
and  of  this  708  pounds  is  marketable  meat.  All  of  the 
high-priced  cuts  are  taken  from  the  ribs,  loins,  and  hind 
quarters,  and  the  best  cuts  coming  principally  from  the 
ribs  and  loins.  These  valuable  cuts  together  weigh  346 
pounds.  The  less  valuable  cuts  from  the  fore-quarters, 
belly,  and  flank  weigh  362  pounds- 


MEAT  PRODUCTS.  199 

Oral  Problems. 

Ascertain  of  your  local  butcher  the  prices  he  charges 
for  the  dififerent  cuts. 

714.  What  is  the  value  of  the  neck?  Chuck?  Prime 
of  rib? 

715.  What  is  the  value  of  the  porterhouse?  Sirloin? 
Rump  ?    Round  ? 

716.  What  is  the  value  of  the  plate?  Shin?  Shank? 
Flank? 

717.  What  is  the  total  quantity  of  dressed  beef  ? 

718.  What  percentage  is  this  of  the  live  weight? 

719.  What  is  the  total  value  of  prime  or  ribs,  porter- 
house, sirloin,  rump,  and  round  ? 

720.  What  is  the  value  of  all  other  parts  of  the  car- 
cass? 

721.  What  percentage  of  the  value  of  a  good  average 
steer  is  found  in  the  ribs,  loins,  and  hind  quarters  ? 

Important  truth.  Since  the  high-priced  cuts  are  found 
in  the  region  of  the  back,  loins,  and  hind  quarters,  it  fol- 
lows that  animals  should  be  bred  and  fattened  with  this 
fact  in  mind.  A  large  head,  long  neck,  long  legs,  big 
abdomen  and  heavy  flank  are  worth  little  to  the  butcher, 
hence  these  parts  should  be  small  as  compared  with  the 
back,  loins,  and  hind  quarters. 

722.  "Blackrock"  the  great  champion  fat  .steer  at  a 
recent  international  live  stock  exposition,  weighed,  just 
before  he  was  slaughtered,  1,640  pounds.  When  slaugh- 
tered his  carcass  yielded  69.25  per  cent  of  his  live  weight. 
What  was  his  dressed  weight? 


200  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

723.  A  2,200  steer  was  sold  for  9  cents  per  pound  live 
weight.  When  slaughtered  the  carcass  yielded  68.9  per 
cent  of  the  live  weight.  Had  he  been  sold  on  basis  of 
dressed  weight  what  price  per  pound  would  have  been 
required  to  make  the  selling  price  equal  ? 

724.  Two  cattle  weighing  1,200  pounds  each  were 
sold.  The  dressed  weight  of  one  was  69  per  cent  of  its 
live  weight,  and  of  the  other  48  per  cent  of  its  live 
weight.  If  both  had  been  sold  at  11  cents  per  pound 
dressed  weight,  how  many  dollars  more  would  the  better 
animal  have  brought? 

725.  On  account  of  quality,  the  steer  that  dressed 
highest  sold  at  11  cents  per  pound  dressed  weight,  while 
the  other  brought  but  6  cents  per  pound.  What  was  the 
difference  in  value? 

Sheep.  The  ideal  sheep  is  one  that  carries  a  large 
proportion  of  flesh  or  lean  meat  with  but  a  limited  quan- 
tity of  fat.  In  live  sheep  this  is  indicated  by  a  firm,  even 
covering  over  the  meat  parts  of  the  body.  In  lambs  the 
dressed  weight  varies  from  50  per  cent  to  60  per  cent  of 
the  live  weight. 


Leg. 

22.2  pounds 

Loin, 

17.5  pounds 

Rib, 

14.5  pounds 

Neck, 

3.0  pounds 

Shoulder, 

4.5  pounds 

Breast, 

7.5  pounds 

Shank, 

4.8  pounds 

Location  of  Cuts  in  a  Mutton  Carcass. 

726.  What  is  the  percentage  of  the  leg  cuts  to  the 
whole  carcass  ? 

727.  What  Is  the  percentage  of  value  of  leg  cuts  to 
the  value  of  the  whole  carcass  ? 


MEAT    PRODUCTS 


201 


728.  What  is  the  percentage  of  leg,  loin,  and  rib  cuts 
to  the  whole  carcass? 

729.  What  is  the  percentage  of  the  value  of  these  cuts 
— leg,  rib,  and  loin — to  the  value  of  the  whole  carcass  ? 


SHOULDER 


Retail  Cuts  of  Mutton. 


Hogs.  Some  markets  demand  the  bacon  hog,  so 
called  because  of  its  long  sides ;  while  others  prefer  the 
fat  hog  because  of  the  demand  for  hams,  shoulders,  and 
the  broad,  fat  back.  Scrubs  and  other  hogs  poor  in  form 
make  small  gains  when  fed  and  give  smaller  quantities 
of  dressed  meat  in  proportion  to  live  weight  than  well- 
bred  hogs  of  good  form  and  quality.  Good  hogs  dress 
from  78  to  82  per  cent  of  their  live  weight. 

Carcass  of  a  Fat  Hog,   Showing  the  Division  Com- 
monly Made, 

730.  The  average  weight  of  a  bunch  of  ten-month 
hogs  when  sold  was  243  pounds  live  weight.  When 
slaughtered  the  average  dressed  weight  was  206  pounds. 
What  was  the  percentage  of  dressed  meat  of  live  weight  ? 

731.  The  average  weight  of  a  bunch  of  nine-month 
hogs  was  246  pounds  live  weight  when  sold.  The  slaugh- 
tered carcasses  averaged  81.6  per  cent  of  the  live  weight. 
What  was  the  average  dressed  weight  for  each  hog? 


202 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


732.  This  latter  bunch  of  hogs  brought  6.5  cents  per 
pound.  Had  they  been  slaughtered  before  being  sold, 
what  should  have  been  the  price  per  pound  dressed 
weight  ? 


Retail  Cuts  of  Pork. 

733.  Hogs  that  are  worth  $6.60  per  hundred  and 
weigh  280  pounds,  are  worth  how  much  per  pound, 
providing  they  dress  81  per  cent  of  their  live  weight? 

Curing  Meats  on  the  Farm. 

Plain  salt  pork.  Rub  each  piece  of  meat  with  fine 
common  salt  and  pack  closely  in  a  barrel.  I.et  stand  over- 
night. The  next  day  weigh  out  ten  pounds  of  salt,  and 
two  ounces  of  saltpeter  to  each  100  pounds  of  meat  and 
dissolve  in  four  gallons  of  water.  Pour  this  brine  over 
the  meat  when  cold,  cover  and  weight  down  to  keep  it 
under  brine  until  used. 


Oral  Problems. 

734.  How  many  pounds  of  salt  and  saltpeter  will  be 
required  for  curing  400  pounds  of  plain  salt  pork  ? 

735.  How  much  water  should  be  used  for  this  quan- 
tity of  salt  and  saltpeter? 


MEAT    PRODUCTS.  203 

736.  How  many  pounds  each  of  saltpeter,  salt,  and 
water  will  be  required  for  75  pounds  of  salt  pork? 

737.  In  what  proportion  are  salt  and  saltpeter  used  in 
curing  plain  pork? 

Sugar-cured  hams  and  bacon.  When  the  meat  is 
cooled,  rub  each  piece  with  salt  and  allow  it  to  drain  over- 
night. Then  pack  it  in  a  barrel  with  the  hams  and 
shoulders  in  the  bottom,  using  the  strips  of  bacon  to  fill 
in  between  or  to  put  on  top.  Weigh  out  for  each  100 
pounds  of  meat 
eight  pounds  of 
salt,  two  pounds  of 
brown  sugar,  and 
two  ounces  of  salt- 
peter.   Dissolve  all 

in    four    gallons  of  ^^^  Carcass  in  Four  Parts. 

water,     and     cover  showing    way    of    cutting    head,    shoulders,    middle 

the  meat  with  the  ""'^  '^''"'• 

brine.  Bacon  strips  should  remain  in  this  brine  from 
four  to  six  weeks;  hams  and  shoulders  from  six  to  eight 
weeks.  After  this  smoke  carefully  and  the  meat  will  be 
sweet,  palatable,  and  of  good  flavor. 

Oral  Problems. 

738.  What  quantities  each  of  salt,  brown  sugar,  and 
saltpeter  are  required  for  600  pounds  of  meat  ? 

739.  In  how  much  water  should  these  materials  be 
dissolved  ? 

740.  In  what  proportions  are  these  materials  used  for 
sugar-cured  hams  and  bacon? 

741.  A  farmer  has  18  hams  averaging  12  pounds  each, 
18  shoulders  averaging  10  pounds  each,  and  16  pounds 


204 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


of  bacon,  which  he  desires  to  sugar-cure.  How  many 
pounds  of  sak,  brown  sugar,  and  saltpeter  will  be  re- 
quired ? 

742.  How  much  water  will  be  required  for  curing  this 
quantity  of  meat? 

Dry-cured  pork.  For  each  100  pounds  of  meat  weigh 
out  five  pounds  of  salt,  two  pounds  of  granulated  sugar, 

and  two  ounces  of 
saltpeter,  and  mix 
them  thoroughly. 
Rub  the  meat  well 
every  three  days 
with  a  third  of  the 
mixture.  Pack  in 
a  barrel  or  tight 
box.  For  conveni- 
ence it  is  advisable 
to  have  two  barrels 
and  to  transfer  the 
meat  from  one  to 
the  other  each  time 
it  is  rubbed.  After 
the  third  rubbing  the  meat  should  remain  in  the  barrel  for 
a  week  or  ten  days,  when  it  will  be  cured  and  ready  to 
smoke. 

Oral  Problems. 

743.  A  farmer  desires  to  dry  cure  300  pounds  of  pork. 
How  much  each  of  salt,  granulated  sugar,  and  saltpeter 
will  be  needed?  How  many  pounds  of  the  mixture  will 
be  required  for  each  rubbing? 

744.  If  this  farmer  should  decide  to  dry-cure  one-half 
of  this  meat  and  sugar-cure  the  other  half,  what  materials 
would  be  required  and  how  much  of  each  ? 


Hams  Trimmed  and  Untrimmed. 


MEAT   PRODUCTS. 


205 


745.  A  farmer  on  finishing  his  butchering  finds  that 
he  has  540  pounds  of  meat  to  cure.  He  decides  that  he 
wishes  140  pounds  of  this  to  be  plain  salt  pork,  and  one- 
half  of  the  remainder  to  be  sugar-cured  and  one-half  dry- 
cured.  What  materials  will  be  required  for  all  and  what 
quantity  of  each? 

Sausage.  To  each  three  pounds  of  fresh,  lean,  pork 
add  one  pound  of  fat.  Mix  the  fat  and  lean  together  in 
chopping.  When  thoroughly  mixed,  season  with  a  mix- 
ture made  of  one  ounce  pure  fine  salt,  one-half  ounce  of 

ground  black  pep- 
ilL  per,    and    one-half 

ounce  of  pure  leaf 
sage  for  each  four 
pounds  of  meat. 
This  done  the  sau- 
sage may  be 
packed  away  in 
stone  jars  or 
stuffed  into  cas- 
ings. 

Oral   Problems. 


Butchering  Outfit. 

Some  of  the  smaller  tools  of  much  help  in  cutting 

up   the   farm   meat  supply. 


746.     A    farmer 

after     mixing    his 

sausage     finds     he 

has  75  pounds.    How  much  each  of  salt,  black  pepper  and 

sage  leaf  will  be  required  for  proper  seasoning  ? 

747.  A  farmer  slaughters  15  hogs.  He  finds  that  after 
properly  trimming  the  dressed  carcasses  he  has  an  aver- 
age of  10  pounds  of  sausage  meat  from  each.  What  ma- 
terials and  what  quantity  of  each  will  be  required  for 
seasoning  the  sausage  ? 

Note. — Sausage  may  be  made  by  using  two  pounds  of  lean 


206 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


pork,  one  pound  of  fat  pork,  and  one  pound  of  lean  beef.    Chop 
together  until  fine  and  season  the  same  as  pork  sausage. 

Bologna  sausage.  To  each  10  pounds  of  lean  beef  use 
one  pound  of  fat  pork,  or  bacon  if  preferred.  Chop  fine 
and  season  with  one  ounce  of  salt  to  each  four  pounds  of 
meat,  one  ounce  of  best  black  pepper  (ground  fine)  to 
each  six  pounds  of  meat,  and  a  pinch  of  ground  coriander. 


Smoking  Meat. 
A  simple  contrivance  for  use  when  but  a  small  amount  of  meat  is  cured. 

Stuff  into  casings.  Smoke  for  10  to  12  hours.  Cook  in 
boiling  water  until  the  sausage  floats.  Dry  on  clean  hay 
or  straw,  and  hang  away  in  a  cool  place  until  wanted. 

Oral  Problems. 

748.     How  many  ounces  each  of  salt  and  black  pepper 
will  be  required  for  100  pounds  of  bologna  sausage  meat? 


MEAT   PRODUCTS.  207 

749.  How  many  ounces  of  each  of  the  seasoning  ma- 
terials for  bologna  sausage  when  10  pounds  of  fat  pork 
has  been  used,  the  proper  quantity  of  lean  beef  having 
been  mixed  with  it? 

Smoking  meats.  A  smoke  house,  6  by  8  feet,  will  be 
large  enough  for  ordinary  farm  use.  Ample  ventilation 
should  be  provided  to  carry  off  the  warm  air,  to  prevent 
overheating  of  meat.  The  best  fuel  is  green  hickory  or 
maple  wood  smothered  with  sawdust  of  the  same  material. 
Hard  wood  of  any  kind  is  preferable  to  soft  wood.  Corn 
cobs  are  a  good  substitute  for  hard  wood. 

Remove  meat  from  the  brine  two  or  three  days  before 
smoking.  If  coated  with  salt  wash  the  meat  in  tepid 
water  and  clean  with  brush.  A  slow  fire  should  be  started, 
warming  up  the  meat  gradually.  When  the  fire  is  kept 
going  steadily  24  to  36  hours  will  be  required  to  finish 
one  lot  of  meat.  After  being  smoked  cover  the  meat  with 
muslin,  paper,  or  burlap,  keep  at  even  temperature  and 
away  from  insects.  Coat  the  covering  with  a  yellow  wash 
made  as  follows : 

For  10  pounds  of  hams  or  bacon  take  three  pounds  of 
barytes  (barium  sulphate),  one  ounce  of  glue,  one  and 
one-half  ounces  of  chrome  yellow  (lead  chromate),  and 
six  and  one-half  ounces  of  flour.  Fill  a  pail  half  full  of 
water  and  mix  in  the  flour,  dissolving  all  lumps  thor- 
oughly. Dissolve  the  chrome  in  a  quart  of  water  in  a 
separate  vessel,  and  add  the  solution  and  the  glue  to  the 
flour;  bring  the  whole  to  the  boiling  point  and  add  the 
barytes  slowly,  stirring  constantly.  Make  the  wash  the 
day  before  it  is  required.    Apply  with  a  brush. 

Oral  Problems. 

750.  How  many  pounds  of  barytes  are  required  for 
preserving  150  pounds  of  hams  or  bacon?  Glue? 
Chrome  yellow?    Flour? 


^m.m 


m  a^ 


Grove  of  Young  Black  Walnut  Trees, 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
FORESTRY. 

The  forests  of  the  United  States  constitute,  next  to  its 
agricuhural  lands,  its  greatest  natural  source  of  wealth. 
In  wood  alone  they  yield  an  annual  product  exceeded  in 
value  only  by  the  output  of  our  farms  and  mines.  In  the 
order  of  their  importance,  our  leading  productive  indus- 
tries are,  farming,  mining,  grazing,  and  lumbering;  but 
this  makes  no  account  of  the  vast  amount  of  wood  grown 
and  used  locally  for  fuel,  fencing,  building,  and  other 
purposes.  Again,  lumbering  stands  fourth  in  the  list  of 
our  manufacturing  industries,  being  surpassed  only  by 
the  iron  and  steel,  the  textile,  and  the  meat-packing  indus- 
tries. The  value  of  the  forests  in  promoting  our  national 
welfare  is  much  greater  even  than  these  facts  indicate. 
Wood  is  directly  or  indirectly  essential  to  all  of  our  indus- 
tries. Mining  requires  timber  for  shores  and  props. 
Transportation,  vital  to  all  industries,  demands  that  our 
forests  be  preserved;  for  trains  run  on  wooden  ties, 
and  rivers  and  canals  are  made  navigable  by  the  water 
which  forests  store.  Manufacturers  and  merchants  re- 
quire wood  for  their  wares  and  for  boxes  and  crates.  The 
wage  earner  needs  it  that  he  may  be  cheaply  housed. 

The  farmer  is  no  less  benefited  by  forests.  He  draws 
on  the  forest  for  fencing,  firewood  and  building  materials. 
He  may  add  to  his  income  by  the  sale  of  material  from 
his  woodlot,  which  furnishes  him  with  work  at  a  time  of 
year  when  he  can  do  little  else  that  is  profitable.  In  many 
regions  he  may  protect  his  family,  his  stock,  and  his  crops 
by  planting  forest  trees  as  windbreaks,  protecting  from 
the  blizzards  of  winter  and  the  hot  winds  of  summer. 


210  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

The  forests  have  a  very  important  influence  upon  the  rain- 
fall and  floods. 

Forestry  means  the  science  and  art  of  making  the  best 
permanent  use  of  the  forest.  If  a  forest  is  cut  in  such 
a  way  that  no  new  forest  growth  of  value  follows,  its 
usefulness  is  permanently  destroyed.  If  it  is  so  cut  that 
it  afterwards  produces  kss  timber  than  in  its  natural 
state,  or  timber  of  inferior  quality,  its  usefulness  is  im- 
paired. Few  farmers  give  sufficient  thought  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  their  forests,  or  even  know  whether  the  treat- 
ment which  they  are  receiving  will  make  them  better  or 
worse.  This  is  bad  farming.  With  proper  care  a  forest 
can  be  made  to  grow  more  and  better  timber  in  a  given 
time  than  it  would  if  left  to  itself.  Use  should  cause  a 
forest  to  improve  and  not  to  deteriorate. 

The  farmers  of  the  United  States  own  approximately 
three  hundred  million  acres  of  woodland.  This  is  a 
tremendously  productive  resource.  Most  of  this  wood- 
land, however,  is  in  a  run-down  condition.  The  differ- 
ence between  what  it  now  produces  and  what  it  might 
produce  with  intelligent  care  is  a  great  loss  which  the 
country  suffers  on  account  of  careless,  wasteful,  and 
shortsighted  methods.  The  difference  between  what  the 
farmer  now  gets  and  what  he  should  get  is  a  loss  for 
which  he  is  himself  responsible. 

751.  A  long  leaf  pine  tree  produces  three  logs,  con- 
taining 10,  24,  and  44  cubic  feet  respectively.  Assuming 
that  from  each  cubic  foot  seven  board  feet  are  secured, 
and  that  long  leaf  pine  lumber  is  worth  $6  a  thousand  on 
the  stump,  how  much  is  the  tree  worth? 

752.  A  farmer  wishes  to  build  a  fence  around  a  square 
farm  of  160  acres.  The  posts  are  to  be  16^  feet  apart. 
How  many  posts  will  it  take  ? 


FORESTRY.  211 

753.  If  the  supply  of  posts  was  obtained  by  cutting 
locust  trees  which  would  make  two  posts  each,  and  were 
planted  8  by  12  feet  apart,  how  much  land  would  have 
to  be  cut  over  ? 

754.  The  ordinary  life  of  a  chestnut  telephone  pole  is 
12  years.  If  the  poles  are  treated  with  a  preserving  fluid, 
they  will  last  10  years  longer.  The  average  cost  of  an 
untreated  pole  is  $5.04  and  of  a  treated  pole  $5.72.  If 
treated  poles  are  used,  what  will  be  the  saving  in  25  years 
per  mile,  40  posts  being  used  for  each  mile? 

755.  A  farmer  wishes  to  build  a  fence  one-half  mile 
long,  with  the  posts  16^  feet  apart.  If  he  used  un- 
treated posts  at  a  cost  of  15  cents  each,  he  would  have  to 
renew  them  after  eight  years ;  if  he  used  those  which  had 
been  preserved  against  decay  at  a  cost  of  6  cents  per  post, 
he  would  not  have  to  renew  his  fence  for  16  years.  The 
cost  of  setting  the  posts  in  either  case  is  5  cents  each. 
What  would  he  save  by  using  the  treated  instead  of  the 
untreated  posts? 

756.  A  farmer  owns  200  acres  of  loblolly  pine,  which, 
if  cut  now,  would  yield  10,000  board  feet  of  lumber  an 
acre  worth  $2  per  thousand  feet.  If  in  5  years  the  price 
of  loblolly  pine  will  be  $3  per  thousand  feet,  and  if  the 
cost  of  taxes  and  protection  is  2  cents  per  acre  per  an- 
num, what  rate  of  simple  interest  would  the  farmer  real- 
ize if  he  held  his  timber  instead  of  cutting  it  ? 

757.  A  cattle  raiser  owns  three  adjoining  sections  of 
land,  which  he  has  to  keep  fenced  with  wire  fence  in 
which  the  posts  are  set  two  rods  apart.  The  posts  now 
set  are  expected  to  last  15  years,  but  the  owner  wants  to 
provide  for  renewals.  He  knows  that  by  planting  cedar 
6  by  6  feet  he  can  get  a  quantity  of  single  post  trees  in 
from  15  to  20  years,  and  by  thinning  the  stand  to  12  by 


212 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


12,  can  have  three  hundred  two-post  trees  an  acre  in  30 
years.  If  the  thinnings  are  assumed  to  provide  for  the 
necessary  renewals  for  30  years,  how  many  acres  of  for- 
ests must  be  planted  and  maintained  to  furnish  the  needed 
posts  ? 

758.  A  farmer  owns  30  acres  on  which  he  wishes  to 
plant  European  larch,  set  4  feet  apart  in  rows  6  feet  apart. 
How  many  seedlings  must  he  plant? 


Grovcing  Timber  as   Farm  Crop. 

These  are  hardy  catalpas.     One  season's  growth,  second  year  from  planting  out, 
and  cut  to  ground  in  spring  after  planting. 


759.  A  farmer  had  a  woodlot  of  hickory  and  oak  in 
equal  proportions,  from  which  he  sold  half  the  wood,  50 
cords,  for  firewood  at  $6  a  cord.  Afterwards  a  furniture 
maker  offered  him  $100  per  thousand  board  feet  for  the 
remaining  oak,  and  a  wagon  maker  offered  him  $50  per 
thousand  board  feet  for  the  remaining  hickory.  He  found 
that  he  could  cut  half  as  many  thousand  board  feet  as  he 
had  cut  cords.     How  much  did  he  receive  for  the  rest 


FORESTRY.  213 

of  his  wood  lot,  and  how  much  more  would  he  have  made 
had  he  sold  the  cordwood  to  the  furniture  maker  and  the 
wagon  maker  ? 

760.  A  farmer  in  New  England  planted  60  acres  of 
white  pine.  The  cost  of  land,  of  planting,  and  of  expenses 
incidental  to  all  the  work  per  acre  was  as  follows:  Cost 
of  land,  $4 ;  cost  of  seed  and  growing  young  trees,  $2.42 ; 
cost  of  planting,  $2.42.    What  was  the  cost  of  60  acres? 

761.  If  this  money  had  been  placed  in  a  savings  bank 
and  had  drawn  3  per  cent  compound  interest  for  40  years, 
what  would  be  the  total  amount  of  interest? 

762.  But  this  money  was  invested  in  a  forest  instead. 
What  was  the  total  amount  invested  per  acre,  including 
the  actual  cost  and  compound  interest  accumulating  dur- 
ing the  40  years  ? 

763.  At  the  end  of  the  40  years  the  forest  farm  yielded 
40  cords  of  wood  per  acre.  The  wood  contained  in  each 
cord  was  valued  at  $4.  What  was  the  value  of  wood 
on  each  acre? 

764.  After  deducting  the  initial  cost  of  the  forest  and 
interest  that  might  have  accumulated  at  3  per  cent  com- 
pound interest  in  a  savings  bank  for  40  years,  what  is  the 
profit  for  each  acre  ? 

765.  What  is  the  average  annual  profit  per  acre? 

766.  What  is  the  average  annual  profit  for  the  60 
acres  ? 

767.  What  is  the  total  profit  of  the  60  acres  at  the  end 
of  40  years,  after  allowing  for  initial  cost  and  accumu- 
lated interest? 

768.  A  European  larch  grove  planted  in  western  Min- 
nesota 17  years  ago,  now  contains  post  material  worth 


214 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


per  acre.  What  is  the  total  cost  per  acre,  including 
the  initial  cost  of  $64.45  per  acre  for  the  land,  labor,  and 
cost  of  trees,  and  compound  interest  at  3  per  cent  during 
the  entire  period? 

769.  Measurements  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Forestry 
hav€  shown  that  the  loss  from  cutting  high  stumps  in  a 
tract  of  100,000  acres  in  the  Adirondacks  is  a  total  of 


Heavy  Logs  En  Route  to  Market. 
In  this  load  are  5,540  feet. 

30,000  standards.     When  a  standard  is  worth  50  cents 
what  is  the  loss  for  the  tract  of  land  ? 

770.  The  average  number  of  ties  to  each  mile  of  rail- 
road track  in  the  United  States  is  3,000.  How  many  ties 
are  in  use  now,  the  railroad  trackage  being  250,000  miles  ? 

771.  The  average  life  of  railroad  ties  is  six  years. 
What  number  of  ties  must  be  replaced  each  year  ? 

772.  The  average  cost  of  a  railroad  tie  is  30  cents. 


FORESTRY.  215 

What  is  the  amount  of  the  annual  expenditure  for  rail- 
road ties  ? 

773.  From  an  average  tree  three  railroad  ties  may  be 
cut.  How  many  trees  are  annually  required  to  furnish 
the  needs  of  the  railroads  for  replacing  the  old  ties,  the 
average  life  of  a  tie  being  six  years  ? 

774.  A  certain  railroad  uses  annually  3,840,000  rail- 
road ties.  If  three  ties  may  be  cut  from  a  locust  tree  30 
years  old,  how  many  acres  will  be  required  to  be  planted 
each  year,  400  trees  being  planted  per  acre,  to  fuj-nish 
the  supply? 

775.  What  is  the  total  number  of  acres  in  trees  re- 
quired to  supply  the  needs  of  this  railroad? 

776.  How  many  trees,  from  one  to  30  years  old,  must 
be  growing  to  keep  the  needs  constantly  supplied? 

777.  How  much  is  an  acre  of  locust  trees  worth,  three 
ties  to  each  tree,  400  trees  to  an  acre,  when  sold  at  30 
cents  a  tie  ? 

778.  A  farmer  wishes  to  renew  the  sills  of  his  barn, 
and  finds  that  he  must  have  12  pieces,  10  inches  by  6 
inches,  white  oak  timber  and  25  feet  long.  How  many 
board  feet  is  this  equivalent  to  (a  board  foot  is  equivalent 
to  a  piece  of  12  x  12  x  1  inch),  and  what  will  be  the  cost 
at  4  cents  a  board  foot? 

779.  If  60  board  feet  of  sawed  lumber,  also  worth  4 
cents  per  board  foot,  can  be  obtained  from  a  tree  in  addi- 
tion to  one  sill,  and  a  half  cord  of  firewood,  worth  $4 
a  cord,  what  is  the  total  value  of  the  tree's  product  ? 

780.  If  an  acre  contains  ten  such  trees,  and  in  addi- 
tion 40  other  trees  fit  for  cord  wood  with  an  average 


216  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

product  of  one-fourth  of  a  cord,  what  is  the  acre  worth 
before  deducting  the  expense  of  marketing? 

781.  If,  in  consequence  of  recurring  ground  fires  and 
lack  of  care,  an  adjoining  wood  lot  has  deteriorated  so 
that  it  bears  only  a  partial  stock  of  inferior  trees  which 
when  cut  yield  ten  cords  per  acre  of  firewood,  salable  for 
only  $3  per  cord,  what  is  the  loss  due  to  the  fire  ? 

Strength  of  woods  used  in  building.  Timber  is  not 
often  used  in  tension.  It  is  used  in  compression,  as  in 
the  uprights  in  buildings  and  in  posts  or  columns  support- 
ing loads.  It  is  also  used  in  beams,  as  the  joists  in  build- 
ings. The  two  cases  we  will  consider  are:  (1)  Posts  or 
short  columns — compression  and  tension,  and  (2)  beams 
— bending. 

782.  What  is  the  safe  working  load  that  may  be  sup- 
ported by  a  4-inch  by  4-inch  white  pine  post  or  column 
that  is  too  short  to  bend  ? 

Process :  Multiply  the  area  of  the  cross  section  in  square 
inches  by  the  safe  working  strength,  per  square  inch,  of  the  tim- 
ber to  be  used.  For  white  pine  this  may  be  taken  as  500  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

4  X  4  X  500  =  8,000  pounds,  total  safe  load. 

Safe  Working  Tensile  and  Compressive  Strengths  of  Some 
Common  Woods. 


Pounds 

per  square  inch, 

White  ash. 

750 

Yellow  birch, 

850 

Hickory, 

800 

Soft  maple, 

750 

Yellow  pine, 

700 

White  pine, 

500 

Poplar, 

550 

White  oak, 

850 

Red  oak, 

800 

Hemlock, 

450 

783.     What  is  the  safe  working  load  that  may  be  sup- 


FORESTRY.  217 

ported  for  an  indefinite  time  by  a  10"  X  12"  block  of  white 
oak  ?    Red  oak  ?    Yellow  pine  ?    Poplar  ? 

784.  What  should  be  the  area  of  the  cross  section  of 
a  yellow  pine  post  which  is  to  carry  indefinitely  a  load 
of  18,000  pounds?  What  would  be  the  length  of  a  side 
if  this  is  a  square  post?    What  is  the  diameter  if  circular? 

785.  What  should  be  the  side  of  a  square  hickory  post 
which  is  to  carry  an  18,000-pound  load? 

(2)  Beams — bending.  When  used  as  a  beam  the 
amount  of  the  safe  working  load  will  depend  upon  the 
way  in  which  the  beam  is  supported  and  the  way  in  which 
the  load  is  applied  as  well  as  upon  the  dimensions  of  the 
beam  and  the  safe  working  strength  of  the  wood. 

786.  What  is  the  safe  working  load  that  may  be  placed 
at  the  middle  point  of  a  yellow  pine  joist  which  is  sup- 
ported at  the  ends  and  which  is  20  feet  long,  2  inches 
broad,  and  10  inches  deep  ? 

Process :  Multiply  the  square  of  the  depth  in  inches  by  the 
breadth  in  inches  and  this  product  by  the  safe  working  strength, 
as  given  in  the  table  above,  and  divide  by  18  times  the  length  in 
feet;  i.  e., 

d^XbXs 

P  r= 

18  XL 
10  X  10  X  2  X  700 

=r  390  pounds 

18X20 

787.  What  would  be  the  load  under  the  same  condi- 
tions as  in  the  preceding  problem,  except  that  the  depth 
is  12  inches?  8  inches?  How  many  times  stronger  is  the 
12-inch  than  the  8-inch  ? 

788.  Show  that  th^^  beam  in  problem  786  would  have 
a  safe  working  load  of  less  than  100  pounds  if  placed  on 
the  side  with  the  2-inch  side  vertical. 

Note. — A  man  could  walk  over  this  beam,  however,  without 


218 


FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


breaking  it,  since  the  ultimate  or  breaking  load  is  estimated  as  at 
least  ten  times  and  frequently  twenty  times  the  safe  working  load, 

789.  What  is  the  safe  working  load  that  may  be  placed 
at  the  middle  point  of  a  white  pine  scantling,  4"  x  4"  x  8', 
when  supported  at  the  ends? 

790.  On  a  white  oak  beam,  6"  X  6"  X  10'?    Red  oak? 


1^ 

mkm 

'x^^M 

Sledding  Time. 
Logs  are  hauled  out  of  a  large  forest  to  the  saw  mill. 


791.  On  a  hemlock  beam  2"  x  10"  x  16'  ? 

Note. — The  safe  working  load,  when  the  load  is  uniformly 
distributed  throughout  the  length  of  the  beam,  is  twice  as  great 
as  when  concentrated  at  the  middle  point. 

792.  In  problem  786  what  would  be  the  safe  working 
load  if  uniformly  distributed  along  the  beam? 

Process :    390  X  2  =  780  pounds. 


FORESTRY.  *  219 

793.  A  joist  of  yellow  pine,  2"  x  12"  x  14',  will  sup- 
port what  distributed  load?    If  2"  x  8"  x  14'? 

794.  A  beam  of  yellow  pine,  10  feet  long  and  12  inches 
deep  is  to  carry  two  tons  at  the  middle  point,  what 
must  be  the  breadth?  How  might  this  beam  be  built  up 
if  2"  X  12"  X  10'  planks  be  used? 

795.  What  is  the  safe  working  distributed  load  that 
may  be  applied  to  a  beam  of  hickory  2"  x  2"  x  10'? 

796.  Of  soft  maple  2"  x  2"  x  10'? 

797.  Of  yellow  pine  2"  x  2"  x  10'?  2"  x  4"  x  10'? 
2"  x6"  xlO'? 

798.  Of  white  oak  2"  x  2"  x  10'  ?  Red  oak?  Yellow 
birch  ? 

799.  A  piece  of  yellow  pine,  2"  x  2"  x  20',  supports 
from  its  middle  point  a  certain  weight.  What  should  be 
the  length  of  a  piece  of  hickory  of  the  same  breadth  and 
thickness,  that  the  same  weight  may  be  supported  ? 

800.  A  red  oak  beam,  8"  x  8"  x  20',  supports  a  weight 
equal  to  its  safe  working  load.  If  a  yellow  pine  timber  of 
same  length  is  substituted,  what  breadth  will  be  required, 
that  the  same  weight  may  be  carried? 

801.  In  planning  a  barn  yellow  pine  timbers  12  inches 
broad  and  20  feet  long  are  to  be  used  as  beams,  .each  tim- 
ber being  called  upon  to  sustain  15  tons  at  the  middle 
point.    What  depth  of  timbers  will  be  required? 


CHAPTER  XVn. 

RULES  AND  MEASURES. 

To  measure  wood.  Multiply  together  the  length, 
width,  and  height  in  feet  and  divide  the  product  by  128. 
The  result  is  the  number  of  cords. 

802.  How  many  cords  in  a  pile  of  wood  30  feet  long, 
4  feet  wide,  and  8  feet  high  ? 

803.  How  many  cords  in  a  pile  of  wood  84  feet  long, 
10  feet  wide,  and  6  feet  and  4  inches  high  ? 

To  ascertain  the  circumference  of  a  tree  required  to 
hew  a  square  stick.  Multiply  the  given  side  of  the 
square  by  4.44,  i.  e.,  by  3.1416  VT.  The  quotient  is  the 
circumference  required.  To  find  the  diameter  multiply 
the  given  side  by  1.414.  Allowance,  of  course,  must  be 
made  for  the  tapering,  irregularities,  and  bark. 

804.  A  farmer  needs  a  timber  9  inches  square.  A  tree 
of  what  circumference  in  the  clear  will  furnish  it? 

Process :    9  X  4.44  =  40  inches,  circumference. 

805.  He  also  needs  a  timber  12  inches  square.  What 
is  the  circumference  required? 

806.  A  tree  of  what  circumference  will  furnish  a  piece 
of  timber  14  inches  square?   • 

To  determine  the  height  of  a  tree.  The  easiest 
method  to  determine  the  height  of  a  tree  is  to  remember 
that  when  the  length  of  the  shadow  of  a  vertical  pole  is 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  pole,  the  length  of  the  shadow 
of  a  tree  is  equal  to  the  height  of  the  tree,  or  that  in  gen- 
eral the  height  of  a  tree  is  in  the  same  ratio  to  the  length 

220 


RULES   AND   MEASURES. 


221 


of  its  shadow  as  the  height  of  a  pole  is  to  the  length  of  its 
shadow. 

A  more  general  method  is  to  set  up  two  poles  in  line 
with  the  tree.  From  some  point,  P,  in  the  farther  pole 
(as  the  top)  sight  across  the  second  pole  to  the  base,  A, 
of  the  tree  and  mark  the  point  C,  in  which  this  line  cuts 
the  second  pole.  Do  the  same  for  the  top  of  the  tree, 
thus  determining  the  point  D.  Then  measure  the  dis- 
tances, P  A,  P  C,  and  C  D.    Now  the  height  of  the  tree 

.B 


•NSfeA  -*^26^ 


,-'D 


Ll_-^ 


Using  Poles  to  Get  Height  of  Tree. 

is  in  the  same  ratio  to  the  distance  P  A  as  the  distance 
C  D  is  to  the  distance  P  C.  Therefore,  the  height  of  the 
tree, 

CDXPA 

A  B= 

PC 

This  method  may  be  used  to  determine  the  vertical  dis- 
tance between  any  two  points  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree  by 
finding  the  difference  of  their  distance  from  the  base. 


222  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

807.  What  is  the  height  of  a  tree  when  C  D  =  6  feet, 
P  A  =  30  feet,  and  P  C  =  4  feet?    Answer,  45  feet. 

808.  What  is  the  .height  from  the  ground  to  the  first 
Hmb,  B,  of  a  tree  when  the  measurements  are  as  follows : 
C  D  =  3'  4'',  P  A  =  102'  6"  and  P  C  =  1'  2"  ? 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  tank  or  cistern. 

For  a  rectangular  cistern:  Multiply  together  the  length, 
width,  and  depth  in  feet  and  multiply  the  product  by  7.5, 
the  number  of  gallons  in  a  cubic  foot.  This  will  give  the 
contents  in  gallons. 

809.  How  many  gallons  of  water  in  a  square  cistern 
4  feet  long^  3  feet  wide  and  8^  feet  deep  ? 

Process :    4  X  3  X  8^  X  73^  =  750  gallons. 
For  a  circular  cistern :  Multiply  the  square  of  the  diam- 
eter in  feet  by  the  depth  in  feet,  and  this  product  by 
5.9.    This  will  give  the  contents  in  gallons. 

810.  How  many  gallons  of  water  in  a  round  cistern, 

the  diameter  of  which  is  10  feet  and  the  depth  10  feet  ? 

Process : 

10  X  10  X  10  X  5.9  =  5,900  gallons 

811.  How  many  gallons  of  water  in  a  cistern  6  feet 
long,  6  feet  wide,  and  6  feet  deep  ? 

812.  How  many  gallons  of  water  in  a  circular  tank  8 
feet  in  diameter  and  8  feet  deep  ? 

813.  A  farmer  wishes  to  place  a  square  tank  4  feet 
high  in  the  attic  of  his  house.  It  must  hold  800  gallons. 
What  is  the  length  of  the  side  ? 

814.  If  the  above  tank  is  circular,  what  must  be  the 
diameter  ? 

The  number  of  bushels  in  a  bin.  For  a  rectangular 
bin :  Multiply  together  the  length,  breadth,  and  depth,  each 


RULES   AND    MEASURES.  223 

in  feet  and  multiply  this  product  by  0.8,  the  number  of 
bushels  in  a  cubic  foot.  The  result  is  the  number  of 
bushels. 

815.     What  is  the  capacity,  in  bushels,  of  a  bin  6'  x  8' 


x3'? 

816.  How  high  must  a  bin  be  to  hold  200  bushels  if 
the  length  is  10  feet  and  the  width  is  5  feet? 

For  a  circular  bin :  Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter 
by  the  depth,  all  in  feet,  and  multiply  this  product  by  ^. 
The  result  is  the  number  of  bushels. 

817.  How  many  bushels  in  a  bin  whose  diameter  is 
42  inches  and  whose  depth  is  4  feet  ? 

818.  What  is  the  depth  of  a  circular  bin  holding  85 
bushels  and  having  a  diameter  of  4  feet  ? 

819.  What  is  the  diameter  of  a  circular  bin  holding 
180  bushels  and  having  a  depth  of  5  feet  ? 

To  measure  corn  in  the  crib.  Multiply  together  the 
height,  width  and  length  in  feet  and  divide  this  product 
by  5  for  old  dry  corn,  and  by  4  for  new  fresh  corn.  The 
final  product  will  approximate  the  number  of  bushels  of 
corn  in  the  crib. 

820.  What  is  the  approximate  number  of  bushels  of 
corn  in  a  crib  20  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  10  feet  high, 
corn  new  and  fresh  ? 

821.  What  is  the  approximate  amount  of  corn  in  a 
crib  30  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  12  feet  high,  the  corn 
being  thoroughly  dry? 

To  measure  hay  in  the  mow.  Multiply  together  the 
height,  length  and  width  in  yards  and  divide  by  15  if  the 
hay  be  well  packed.    If  the  mow  be  shallow  and  the  hay 


224 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


SEED 

COTTON 

- 

- 

LINT  COTTON 


recently  placed  therein,  divide  by  18,  or  by  any  number 
from  15  to  18,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  pack- 
ing.   This  gives  approximately  the  number  of  tons. 

822.     How  many  tons  of  hay  in  a  mow  42  feet  long, 
21  feet  wide,  and  15  feet  high,  the  hay  being  well  packed  ? 

823.  How  many  tons  in 
a  mow  46  feet  long,  35  feet 
wide,  and  18  feet  high,  the 
hay  being  just  put  in? 

To  measure  hay  in  the 
rick.  (Approximately.)  Mul- 
tiply the  length  of  the  base 
in  yards  by  the  width  in 
yards,  and  that  by  half  the 
height  in  yards  and  divide 
the  product  by  15  to  18. 

824  How  many  tons  of 
old  hay  in  a  rick  15  f<eet  long, 
9  feet  wide,  and  12  feet 
high? 


□     D  D  D 


o 


Plant  Food  in   Cotton. 

Most  of  the  plant  food  withdrawn 
from  the  soil  in  cotton  raising  is 
stored  in  the  seed.  If  all  seed  were 
fed  to  cattle  and  the  resulting 
manure  returned  to  the  land  cotton 
would  be  the  least  exhaustive  of  all 
crops  grown. 


825.  How  many  tons  of 
newly  made  hay  in  a  rick  24  feet  long,  12  feet  wide,  and 
12  feet  high? 

Important  truth.  The  only  exact  method  of  measur- 
ing hay  or  grain  is  to  weigh  it,  but  the  rules  given  above 
will  be  found  sufficient  for  ordinary  practical  purposes. 
In  measuring  hay  the  rules  apply  to  timothy  as  the  stand- 
ard. In  the  case  of  clover,  alfalfa,  and  cowpea  hay,  which 
do  not  pack  so  completely,  one-fourth  should  be  taken 
from  the  approximate  measure  in  tons  as  determined  by 
the  above  rules. 


To  exchange  cottonseed  for  cottonseed  meal.     In  the 


RULES   AND    MEASURES.  225 

cotton  states  a  great  deal  of  cottonseed  is  exchanged  for 
cottonseed  meal.  The  basis  of  exchange  must  rest  on  the 
commercial  value  of  the  feeding  and  fertilizing  elements 
contained  in  each.  Since  both  of  these  materials  are  used 
in  great  quantities  as  carriers  of  commercial  plant  food, 
the  fertilizing  value  primarily  governs  the  selling  prices, 
and  also  becomes  the  basis  of  exchange  of  seed  for  meal 
at  the  oil  mill. 

Determining  Basis  of  Exchange. 

One  ton  cottonseed  contains : 

Ammonia,  75  pounds  at  16  cents,  $12.00 

Phosphoric  acid,  26  pounds  at  5  cents,  1.30 

Potash,  24  pounds  at  5.4  cents,  1.30 


Fertilizing  value,  $14.60 

One  ton  cottonseed  meal  contains : 

Ammonia,  170  pounds  at  16  cents,  $27.20 

Phosphoric  acid,  56  pounds  at  5  cents,  2.80 

Potash,  36  pounds  at  5.4  cents,  1.94 


Fertilizing  value,     $31.94 
31.94  -f-  14.60  =  2.19 

Which  means  that,  at  the  prices  assumed,  cottonseed  meal  con- 
tains 2.19  times  as  much  fertilizing  materials  as  cottonseed. 

Cost  of  transfer.  The  seed  must  be  hauled  to  the  oil 
mill  and  the  meal  must  be  hauled  back  to  the  farm.  From 
the  standpoint  of  fertilizing  values  an  exchange  of  2,000 
pounds  of  seed  for  (2,000  -^  2.19  =  913)  pounds  of  meal 
would  be  equitable.  The  farmer  should  receive,  then,  an 
additional  quantity  of  meal  sufficient  to  cover  the  expense 
and  trouble  of  hauling  or  he  will  lose  by  the  transaction. 

826.  A  farmer  exchanges  one  ton  of  seed  for  meal 
at  the  oil  mill.  He  finds  it  costs  him  $2  for  the  time  and 
labor.  How  many  pounds  of  meal  will  be  required  in  ex- 
change for  the  ton  of  seed  after  allowing  for  the  expense 
of  the  trip  ? 


226 


FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


Process :  He  should  receive  923  pounds  of  meal  for  the  ton, 
and  in  addition  $2  worth  of  meal.  Since  meal  is  worth  about 
$30  per  ton,  he  should  receive  2/30  of  a  ton,  or  133+  pounds,  or 
a  total  of  1,083  pounds. 

It  costs  another  farmer  $3  to  haul  a  ton  of  seed  to  the 
mill,  and  the  meal  back  home.  On  a  basis  of  even  ex- 
change, how  many  pounds  of  meal  should  he  receive? 


A 

■l"-o« 

-j^-,r^-^m^      -. 

^^M^^MB^^iiKtei 

^^•v 

|||-|jf^    .^4. 

Seed  Cotton  Ready  to  Be  Ginned. 

The  raw  cotton  is  weighed,  sucked  automatically  from  the  wagons  under  the 
shed  at  the  right  of  picture.  Without  being  touched  by  hand  it  is  ginned — lint 
separated  from  seed — the  lint  put  in  bales  seen  at  left  of  the  picture  and  the  seed 
blown  into  a  box  car  ready  for  shipment. 


827.  At  a  certain  oil  mill  farmers  are  given  1,400 
pounds  of  meal  for  each  ton  of  seed.  How  much  does 
each  farmer  receive  per  ton  for  the  trouble  and  expense 
of  hauling  to  and  from  the  mill  ? 

828.  On  basis  of  even  exchange  based  upon  the  prices 
assumed  on  page  225,  what  is  cottonseed  worth  per  bushel 
(30  pounds)  when  cottonseed  meal  is  worth  $25  per  ton? 


RULES  AND   MEASURES.  227 

Suggestion:  Note  that  cotton  meal  is  worth  2.18  times  as 
much  as  cottonseed  and  that  there  are  66  2/3  bushels  of  seed  in 
a  ton. 

829.  On  basis  of  even  exchange,  when  cottonseed 
meal  is  worth  $30  a  ton,  what  is  seed  worth  a  bushel? 

830.  When  cottonseed  meal  is  worth  $28  a  ton,  what 
is  seed  worth  at  the  mill  if  the  cost  of  hauling  is  2  cents 
a  bushel? 

831.  When  cottonseed  meal  is  worth  $30  a  ton,  what 
should  the  farmer  receive  for  seed  per  bushel  at  the  mill 
if  the  cost  of  hauling  is  $3  a  ton  ? 

832.  When  cottonseed  is  bought  at  the  mill  for  40 
cents  a  bushel,  what  sbould  cottonseed  meal  be  worth 
per  ton,  providing  the  oil  extracted  pays  for  cost  of  man- 
ufacture ? 

833.  When  cottonseed  is  bought  for  25  cents  per 
bushel,  what  is  the  value  of  the  meal  per  ton  ? 

To  measure  land.  1.  For  a  square  or  rectilinear  field : 
Multiply  the  length  in  rods  by  width  in  rods  and  divide 
by  160,  the  number  of  square  of  rods  in  an  acre.  The  re- 
sult is  the  number  of  acres  in  the  field. 

2.  For  a  triangular  field:  From  half  the  sum  of  the 
three  sides  in  rods  subtract  each  side  separately.  Find 
the  continued  product  of  the  half  sum,  and  the  three  re- 
mainders. Divide  the  square  root  of  the  product  by  160. 
The  result  is  the  number  of  acres.  If  the  field  is  a  right- 
angled  triangle,  i.  e.,  one  having  two  sides  that  are  per- 
pendicular to  each  other,  take  one-half  of  the  product  of 
these  two  sides  in  rods  and  divide  by  160.  The  result  is 
the  number  of  acres. 

3.  For  a  field  irregular  in  shape :    Divide  up  into  tri- 


228  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


angles  and  rectangles  by  means  of  straight  lines  and  pro- 
ceed as  in  No.  2  and  No.  1. 

4.  For  a  circular  field :  Multiply  the  square  of  the  diam- 
eter in  rods  by  .7854  and  divide  by  160. 

834.  I.  Find  the  area  of  a  field  100  rods  long  by  48 
rods  wide  ? 

100  X  48  f 

Process:    =  30  acres. 

160 

835.  II.  Find  the  area  of  a  triangular  field  the  sides 
of  which  are  20,  30,  and  40  rods  respectively. 

20  +  30  +  40 

=  45 

2 

45  —  20  =:  25 

45  —  30  =  15 

45  —  40  =    5 

45  X  25  X  15  X  5  =  84,375 

V84,375  =  290.5 

290.5  ^  160  =  1.81.        Answer,  1.81  acres. 

836.  III.  Find  the  area  of  a  circular  field,  the  diam- 
eter of  which  is  20  rods  ? 

837.  How  many  acres  in  a  farm  400  rods  long  and  320 
rods  wide? 

838.  How  many  acres  in  a  triangular  field  the  sides 
of  which  are  20,  40,  and  50  rods  ? 

839.  How  many  acres  in  a  circular  field  the  diameter 
of  which  is  26  rods? 

Given  the  plot  of  a  farm  as  shown  on  page  229,  to  find 
its  acreage. 

840.  How  many  acres  in  the  fields  A  and  B  together  ? 

841.  How  many  acres  in  the  field  A,  assuming  it  to 
be  a  right-angled  triangle? 


RULES   AND    MEASURES. 


229 


842.  How  many  acres  in  field  B  ? 

843.  Find  the  number  of  acres  in  field  C  by  dividing 
it  into  a  rectangle  and  a  triangle. 

844.  How  many  acres  in  field  D  ? 


Public       Road 


Layout  of  Farm,  Showing  Fields. 
The  acreage  of  each  field  is  to  be  determined. 

845.  How  many  acres  in  field  E  ? 

846.  How  many  acres  in  field  F? 

847.  How  many  acres  in  field  G  ? 

848.  Find  the  number  of  acres  in  field  I  by  consider- 
ing it  the  quarter  of  a  circle  ? 

849.  Find  the  number  of  acres  in  field  H  by  first  find- 
ing the  area  of  I  and  H  together. 


850.     How  many  acres  in  the  farm? 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 

Concrete,  or  artificial  stone,  is  a  mixture  of  gravel  or 
crushed  stone,  sand,  and  Portland  cement.  When  properly 
executed  concrete  forms  a  permanent  and  comparatively 
inexpensive  material  for  the  construction  of  foundations, 
steps,  sidewalks,  cellar  and  farm  building  floors,  feeding 
areas,  cisterns,  watering  and  feeding  troughs,  fence  and 
hitching  posts,  horse  blocks,  piers,  culverts,  building 
blocks,  building  walls,  etc. 

The  crushed  stone  or  gravel  and  sand  should  be  rea- 
sonably free  from  clay  and  loam.  The  sand  should  not 
be  too  fine.  Except  for  the  most  unimportant  work  the 
cement  should  be  of  the  best  grade.  Cement  may  be  pur- 
chased in  sacks  of  one-fourth  barrel  each,  weighing 
a  little  less  than  100  pounds.  Walks  and  floors  should 
be  subdrained  and  should  have  a  slope  of  1  inch  in  4  feet 
for  surface  drainage.  Where  freezing  will  occur  walks 
should  be  underlaid  with  from  4  inches  to  12  inches  of 
cinders,  gravel,  or  broken  stone,  well  wetted  and  very 
thoroughly  tamped.  Foundations,  piers,  etc.,  should 
extend  well  below  the  frost  line. 

851.  How  many  cubic  yards  of  concrete  are  required 
in  the  construction  of  a  cellar  floor  12  feet  by  20  feet  and 
4  inches  thick?    Three  inches  thick? 

Process : 

12  X  20  =  240  square  feet,  area  of  floor. 
240  X  1/3  =  80  cubic  feet,  volume  of  concrete, 
80  -^  27  =   3  cubic  yards,  for  the  4-inch  floor. 

852.  How  many  cubic  yards  would  be  required  for 
three  3-inch  floors,  8  feet  by  12  feet,  16  feet  by  32  feet, 
and  10  feet  by  14  feet,  respectively  ? 

230 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


231 


853.  A  sidewalk  60  feet  long,  4  feet  wide  and  4  inches 
thick  is  to  be  constructed.  Calculate  the  number  of  cubic 
yards  of  cinders,  required  to  make  a  12-inch  foundation? 
Six-inch  foundation? 

854.  How  many  cubic  yards  of  concrete  are  required 
for  the  sidewalk  in  the  preceding  problem?  How  much 
finish  is  required  for  a  finishing  coat  1  inch  thick? 


Constructed  of  Concrete  Throughout, 

Not  only  the  foundations,  but  the  floors,  walls  and  other  parts  of  this  house 
are  made  of  concrete.  Even  the  clapboard  effect  on  the  second  story  was  made 
by  placing  mortar  over  the  concrete  and  lining  it  off  to  represent  wood.  The 
interior  of  the  house,  also,  is  concrete. 

855.  How  much  concrete  required  to  build  a  watering 
trough  having  its  walls  4  inches  thick  and  the  inside 
dimensions  as  follows :  Length  8  feet,  width  18  inches, 
depth  12  inches. 

856.  How  much  concrete  is  required  to  make  50  posts 


232  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

6^/2  feet  long  and  6  inches  square  at  the  bottom  and  3^ 
inches  square  at  the  top? 

Process :  A  solid  of  this  shape  is  called  a  frustum  of  a  pyra- 
mid. It  may  be  regarded  as  the  solid  that  is  left  when  a  pyra- 
mid having  a  base  6"  x  6"  has  a  pyramid  having  a  base  3>2''  x 
3>^"  removed  from  its  top.  If  the  height  of  the  smaller  pyramid 
in  inches  be  represented  by  X,  then  we  must  have  the  relation : 
X  inches  (the  altitude  of  the  smaller  pyramid)  is  to  3^^  inches 
(the  side  of  its  base)  as  X  -{-  '''8  inches  (the  altitude  of  the 
larger  pyramid)  is  to  6  inches  (the  side  of  its  base). 

X  X  +  78 

Therefore,  =  

3^  6 

6X  =  3^X  -f  3^  X  78 
6X  —  3J/^X  r=  3^  X  78 
25^X  =z  3^  X  78 
"  5X  =r  7  X  78  =  546 

"         X  =  109.2  inches,  altitude  smaller  pyramid. 

X  -f-  78  —  187.2  inches,  altitude  larger  pyramid. 

The  volume  of  a  pyramid  is  equal  one-third  the  area 
of  the  base  multiplied  by  the  altitude. 

The  volume  of  the  larger  pyramid  is 

1/3  X  6  X  6  X  187.2  =  2,246 A  cubic  inches. 
The  volume  of  the  smaller  pyramid  is 

1/3  X  3.5  X  3.5  X  109.2  =  445.9  cubic  inches. 
Volume  of  post  =  2,246.4  —  445.9  =  1,800.5  cubic  inches. 
.  *  .  volume  of  post  =  1,800.5  -^  1,728  =  1.04  cubic  feet. 
Volume  of  50  posts  =  50  X  1-04  =  52  cubic  feet,  or  approx- 
imately 2  cubic  yards. 

857.  If  the  above  posts  were  the  same  size  at  the  top 
as  at  the  bottom,  how  many  cubic  yards  would  be  re- 
quired? If  10"  X  10"  at  bottom  and  6"  x  6"  at  top— i.  e., 
corner-post  size? 

858.  How  much  No.  6  wire  is  required  to  reinforce 
the  50  posts  in  the  above  problem  if  each  post  contains 
four  strands  running  the  entire  length  ? 

859.  How  much  concrete  is  required  to  build  a  root 
cellar  10  feet  by  14  feet  and  7j4  feet  high,  omitting  roof 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


233 


and  entrance  way,  if  the  side  walls  are  8  inches  thick  and 
the  floor  4  inches  thick? 

860.  About  how  much  concrete  will  be  required  to 
construct  a  semi-cylindrical  roof  3  inches  thick,  the  two 
ends,  and  an  entrance  way,  for  the  root  cellar  in  the  last 
problem  ? 

861.  How  much  concrete  was  required  for  the  two 
circular  silos,  20  feet  diameter,  32  feet  high,  12-inch  walls, 
and  8-inch  floors,  now  in  use  at  the  U.  S.  Soldiers'  Home, 
Washington,  D.  C? 


'{Rod  pressed 


•4"x  10"  X  T' 


6'.  6" 


Concrete  Fence  Posts. 

At  the  bottom  is  shown  the  face  of  the  post.     At  the  top  at  the  left  the  form 
for  making,  and  at  the  top  at  the  right  is  shown  enlarged  section  of  post. 

862.  How  much  concrete  is  required  to  make  ten  V- 
shaped  and  ten  round-bottom  hog  troughs,  length  6  feet, 
with  cross  sections  as  shown  in  the  cuts  on  page  235  ? 

Concrete  formula.  A  formula  is  used  to  indicate  the 
relative  amounts  by  volume  of  each  of  the  three  ingredi- 
ents. A  1-2-4  concrete  is  one  composed  of  one  part  of 
cement,  two  parts  of  sand,  and  four  parts  of  gravel  or 


234 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


crushed  stone.  It  is  richer  in  cement  than  is  ordinarily 
required.  For  walks,  cellar  floors,  building  walls,  etc. 
A  1-2^-5  mixture  is  amply  sufficient.  For  heavier  work 
the  proportions  may  be  1-3-6  and  for  massive  and  unim- 
portant work  1-4-8. 

Mixing.     On  a  level  watertight  platform  spread  out 
the  measured  quantity  of  dry  sand  and  on  top  of  this  the 


Concrete  Water  Tank. 


cement.  Turn  dry  with  shovel  until  thoroughly  mixed — 
at  least  three  times.  Add  the  gravel  or  stone  (thor- 
oughly wet)  and  again  turn  at  least  three  times,  adding 
water  slowly,  from  a  sprinkler,  after  the  first  time.  Add 
only  enough  water  to  make  a  thick  mush,  so  that  when 
lightly  tamped  into  place  the  water  will  just  flush  to  the 
surface.  Mix  small  batches,  one  or  two  bags  of  cement 
at  a  time,  and,  to  avoid  deterioration,  place  in  the  forms 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


235 


without  delay.  The  total  amount  of  concrete  obtained  is 
only  slightly  greater  in  volume  than  that  of  the  gravel  or 
crushed  stone  used.  The  following  table  shows  approxi- 
mately, for  four  standard  formulae,  the  number  of  bar- 
rels of  each  material  required  to  make  one  cubic  yard 
(7.1  barrels)  of  concrete. 


Formula 
1-2-4 
l-2>4-5 
1-3-6 
1-4 


Forms  for  Making  Concrete  Hog  Troughs. 


How  many  sacks  of  cement  will  be  required  to 
make  3.5  cubic  yards  of  1-2^-5  concrete?  How  much 
sand  ?    Gravel  or  crushed  stone  ? 

Process :    The  table  gives  1.3  barrels  per  cubic  yard. 
4X1-3  =  5.2  sacks  per  cubic  yard. 
3.5  X  5.2  =2  18.2  sacks  cement.     Ans. 

864.  What  amount  of  materials  would  be  required  in 
the  last  problem  if  the  1-3-6  formulae  were  used?  The 
1-4-8? 

865.  What  would  be  the  cost,  exclusive  of  labor,  of 
the  concrete  in  problem  863  with  cement  at  $1.80  per  bar- 


236  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

rel,  sand  at  $1.50  per  cubic  yard,  and  gravel  $1.00  per 
cubic  yard? 

866.  What  would  be  the  cost  of  the  materials  used  in 
the  sidewalk  in  problem  854,  if  cinders  are  free  for  the 
hauling,  other  costs  are  as  in  865,  a  l-2i/^-5  concrete  is 
used,  and  the  surfacing  is  omitted? 

867.  The  materials  used  in  the  silo  in  problem  861 
were,  "one  part  best  Portland  cement,  two  parts  clean 
coarse  sand,  three  parts  clean  fine  gravel,  and  four  parts 
clean  broken  stone,  brick  or  terra  cotta."  Assuming  that 
this  was  approximately  a  1-3-6  concrete,  determine  the 
quantity  of  cement  used. 


If  the  surface  finish  in  problem  854  be  a  1-2-0 
mixture  and  the  volume  after  adding  the  cement  to  the 
sand  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  sand,  what  is  the  amount 
of  cement  required  for  the  finishing  coat? 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

FARM  ACCOUNTS. 

No  farmer  can  know  just  where  he  stands  financially 
unless  he  keeps  an  accurate  account  of  his  daily,  weekly, 
monthly,  and  yearly  business  transactions.  A  farm  ac- 
count book  is  a  matter  of  economy  and  satisfaction.  It  is 
a  protection  in  case  of  dispute  or  death.  It  assists  a 
farmer  to  become  quick  and  accurate  in  figures  and  in- 
creases his  knowledge  of  business  methods.  It  gives  him 
positive  knowledge,  and  consequently  his  opinions  have 
greater  weight  than  the  opinions  of  those  who  merely 
guess. 

Farm  inventory.  An  inventory  is  a  detailed  account 
or  schedule  of  the  farm  and  what  is  on  it.  This  includes 
land,  stock,  machinery,  tools,  hay  and  grain,  household 
goods,  notes,  cash,  accounts  against  others,  and  all  prop- 
erty having  money  value. 

869.  A  certain  farm  consisting  of  75  acres  of  land  is 
worth  $125  an  acre.  The  other  assets  are  as  follows: 
Two  horses,  worth  $185  each;  two  horses,  worth  $130 
each;  six  cows,  average  value  $60;  three  brood  sows, 
$20  each;  30  sheep,  $8  each;  150  hens,  $1  each;  corn  in 
crib,  400  bushels  at  60  cents  a  bushel;  320  bushels  of 
wheat,  $1  a  bushel ;  16  tons  of  hay  at  $10  a  ton ;  one  two- 
horse  wagon,  $75 ;  one  wheat  harvester,  $100 ;  one  corn 
planter,  $30 ;  one  buggy,  $60 ;  2  plows,  $8  each ;  4  single 
cultivators,  $4  each ;  other  farm  machines  and  tools,  $550. 
Arrange  the  inventory  by  schedule  and  indicate  the  total 
assets. 

237 


238 


FARM    ARITHMETIC. 


How  to  arrange  inventory : 

Inventory,  January  1,  1914. 


$9,375.00 

2  horses.  $185.00  each 

370.00 

2  horses,  $130.00  each 

260.00 

6  cows,  $60.00  each 

360.00 

3  brood  sows,  $20.00  each 

60.00 

30  sheep,  $8.00  each 

240.00 

150  hens,  $1.00  each , 

150.00 

400  bushels  corn,  $0.60  a  bushel 

240.00 

320  bushels  wheat,  $1.00  a  bushel 

320.00 

16  tons  hay,  $10.00  a  ton 

160.00 

75.00 

1  wheat  harvester 

100.00 

30.00 

1  buggy . 

60  00 

2  plows,  $8.00  each 

16.00 

4  cultivators,  $4.00  each 

16.00 

Other  farm  machines  and.  tools  . 

550.00 

Total  $12,382.00 

Liabilities.  The  liabilities  or  debts — that  which  is 
owed  on  mortgages,  notes,  accounts,  etc. — should  also  be 
listed.  The  difference  between  one's  assets  and  liabilities 
is  what  he  is  worth.  A  new  inventory  should  be  made  out 
each  year.  By  comparing  these  inventories  year  by  year 
one  can  tell  whether  his  property  is  increasing  or  decreas- 
ing in  value — whether  he  is  accumulating  wealth  or  is 
running  behind. 

870.  Make  out  an  inventory  as  indicated  in  problem 
869,  itemizing  the  assets  of  your  father's  farm  or  some 
other  farm  in  your  community. 

Keeping   a   record   of  receipts   and   disbursements. 

Provide  a  ruled  blank  book  of  reasonable  size.  Use 
the  first  pages  for  the  inventory.  Where  this  leaves 
off  turn  a  page,  marking  at  the  top,  the  word  "Re- 
ceipts" ;  and  on  the  opposite  page  at  the  right  the  word, 
"Expenditures."  As  money  is  paid  out  or  received  in 
cash,  enter  it  on  the  book  by  date  and  amount.  Do  this 
to  the  end  of  the  month,  and  then  balance  the  account. 


FARM    ACCOUNTS. 


239 


Now  turn  to  next  two  pages  and  write  ''Receipts"  and 
''Expenditures"  as  before.  In  case  there  is  a  balance  on 
hand  after  closing  the  account  of  the  previous  month,  en- 
ter the  same  under  "Receipts"  as  "Balance  brought  for- 
ward." In  case  there  is  a  deficit,  enter  this  under  "Ex- 
penditures" as  "Deficit  brought  forward."  By  so  doing 
from  month  to  month,  you  have  a  definite  statement  show- 
ing whether  you  are  making  or  losing  money. 


Interior  of  Cow  Barn,  Showing  Concrete  Construction. 


871.  Suppose  on  January  1,  1914,  a  farmer  has  on 
hand  $40  in  cash.  He  starts  his  account  book.  On  Jan- 
uary 4,  he  pays  out  for  labor  to  John  Smith,  $36 ;  on  Jan- 
uary 6,  he  pays  $24  for  a  ton  of  wheat  bran ;  on  January 
7,  he  is  paid  $16  for  a  calf ;  on  January  9  he  is  paid  $42 
for  corn;  on  January  16  he  sells  his  wheat  and  gets  $1.04 
a  bushel  for  350  bushels.  On  January  17,  he  pays  $16  for 
three  shotes.     Other  receipts  are  as  follows ;  Four  tons 


240 


FARM   ARITHMETIC. 


hay  at  $14  a  ton  on  January  21 ;  1  colt  on  January  26, 
$75 ;  and  on  January  31,  a  trio  of  sheep,  $20.  Indicate  the 
transactions  for  the  month,  and  amount  of  balance  on 
hand  or  deficit  to  be  carried  forward : 


Left-hand  page. 


Receipts. 


1914 
Jan.     1 

$  40.00 

Jan.     7 

1  calf 

16.00 

Jan.    9 

Corn 

42.00 

Jan.  16 

350  bushels  wheat  at  $1.04 

364.00 

Jan.  21 

4  tons  hay  at  $14.00 

56.00 

Jan.  26 

1  colt 

75  00 

Jan.  31 

3  sheep 

20  00 

Total 

$613.00 

Right-hand  page. 

Expenditures. 

1914 
Jan.    4 

$  36.00 

Jan.    6 

1  ton  wheat  bran 

24.00 

Jan.  17 

3  shotes 

16  00 

By  Balance 

Total 

537.00 

$613.00 

Note. — Starting  the  month  of  February,  the  $537  would  be 
entered  on  page  devoted  to  "Receipts"  under  date  of  February  1, 
as  balance  brought  forward.  Other  items  of  "Receipts"  would 
be  entered  in  order  under  this  from  day  to  day  as  received.  The 
same  would  apply  to  "Expenditures."  Both  "Receipts"  and 
"Expenditures"  are  to  be  carried  right  on  through  the  year, 
month  by  month.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  if  there  is  any  surplus 
on  hand,  it  will  go  into  the  inventory  of  the  next  year  as  an  asset. 
If  there  is  a  deficit  due  to  loss  or  purchase  the  amount  will  be 
carried  over  as  a  liability. 

Detailed  accounts.  Only  one  book  is  necessary  for 
farm  accounts.  Of  course,  one  or  more  may  be  pro- 
vided, using  one  for  live  stock,  another  for  poultry, 
another  for  grain  crops,  another  for  farm  hands,  etc., 
in  addition  to  the  inventory  and  current  "Receipts  and 


FARM    ACCOUNTS. 


241 


Expenditures"  book.  Whether  one  or  more  books  are 
used,  the  pages  should  be  regularly  numbered,  and 
when  an  account  is  carried  forward  the  number  of 
the  page  from  which  it  is  brought  should  be  written 
at  the  top  of  the  new  page,  and  the  number  of  the 
page  to  which  it  is  carried  should  be  written  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  page  from  which  it  is  taken. 

Grain  crops.  When  but  a  single  grain  crop  is  raised, 
but  one  account  need  be  opened  for  any  one  year. 
When  more  than  one  crop  is  raised,  a  different  account 
should  be  opened  for  each  crop.  The  same  book  may  be 
used,  with  separate  accounts  opened  on  different  pages. 
The  following  will  indicate  the  account  with  wheat : 


1912 

Dr. 

Cr. 

Aug.  30 
Sept.  15 
Oct.      1 

To  man  and  team,  10  days  plowing,  15  acres 

$  30.00 

15.00 

30.00 

6.00 

15.00 
16.00 
15.00 
5.00 

20  bushels  seed  wheat  at  $1.50 

Oct.      3 

1913 

July    20 

Threshing  400  bushels 

July    20 

Julv    24 

July    26 
Sept.     1 

Received  for  300  bushels 

$300.00 

Sold  100  bushels  for  seed  at  $150.00   

Totals 
Profit 

150.00 

$132.00 

$450.00 
$318.00 

Note. — The  account  with  corn,  oats,  fruit,  dairy,  hay,  poultry, 
and  every  kind  of  stock  or  produce  may  be  kept  in  exactly  the 
same  way.  The  profit,  of  course,  ought  to  exceed  the  sum  of 
the  interest  on  the  investment  in  land,  teams,  and  machinery,  the 
cost  of  the  labor,  fertilizers,  etc.,  and  the  deterioration  in  values. 

872.  Itemize  the  cost  of  producing  20  acres  of  wheat, 
giving  all  details  as  performed  in  your  section  from  plow- 
ing to  marketing.  If  the  yield  is  22  bushels  an  acre,  what 
is  the  profit  if  the  wheat  brings  $1.04  a  bushel? 


242  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

873.  Arrange  these  items  as  illustrated  above  for  this 
wheat  crop. 

874.  Itemize  the  cost  of  producing  20  acres  of  corn, 
giving  all  details  as  performed  in  your  section  from  plow- 
ing the  land  to  cribbing  the  corn.  Value  the  corn  at  cur- 
rent price  and  determine  the  profit  on  the  20  acres. 

To  the  Teacher:  Require  each  pupil  to  estimate  cost 
of  producing  a  ten-acre  crop  of  each  of  the  principal  farm 
crops  raised  in  the  community.  Then  require  the  pupils  to 
estimate  the  average  yield  an  acre  that  is  necessary  in 
order  to  meet  the  cost  pf  production. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
MISCELLANEOUS  PROBLEMS. 

Note. — The  data  involved  in  the  following  problems  are  con- 
tained in  the  statements  given  on  other  pages  of  this  book.  Pupils 
will  find  it  necessary  to  refer  back  to  the  tables  in  order  to  get 
the  needed  facts  and  figures.  The  purpose  of  these  problems  is  to 
acquaint  each  pupil  with  such  work,  because  this  is  just  what  he 
will  need  to  do  later  when  he  carries  on  agricultural  operations 
for  himself.  Much  interest  is  centered  in  these  problems  also 
because  of  the  reasoning  exercised  in  their  solution. 

Nature  of  the  problem.  A  man  owns  a  farm  contain- 
ing 75  acres.  He  keeps  4  horses,  12  cows,  6  brood  sows ; 
raises  each  year  80  fat  hogs,  and  10  calves  which  he  sells ; 
he  also  sells  400  bushels  of  wheat,  500  bushels  of  potatoes 
and  various  other  farm  products.  He  has  a  two-acre 
orchard  and  an  acre  garden  from  which  he  gets  fruit  and 
vegetables  for  himself  and  family.  His  farm  is  equipped 
with  a  silo,  necessary  barns  and  sheds,  and  farm  tools 
and  implements.  The  milk  obtained  from  the  cows  is 
made  into  butter  and  sold  to  private  trade,  each  pound 
bringing  30  cents  the  year  round.  The  horses  are  used 
for  driving  and  the  farm  work.  Most  of  the  corn,  hay, 
and  other  grain  raised  is  fed  to  live  stock. 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  potash  are  sent  away  from  this  farm  each  year  if 
400  bushels  of  wheat  are  annually  sent  to  market? 

2.  How  many  pounds  of  these  three  elements  are  an- 
nually removed  from  the  soil  by  the  average  wheat  crop 
of  the  whole  of  your  county? 

3.  If  every  pound  were  returned  to  the  land  in  ferti- 
lizer, what  would  be  the  cost  if  nitrogen  is  worth  20  cents 


244  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

a  pound,  phosphoric  acid  5  cents  a  pound,  and  potash  5 
cents  a  pound? 

4.  A  certain  soil  contains  4,800  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
6,700  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  16,400  pounds  of 
potash  in  the  first  8  inches.  How  many  crops  of  wheat 
would  the  nitrogen  in  this  soil  supply,  supposing  that  none 
of  the  nitrogen  is  withdrawn  in  any  other  crop  or  is  lost, 
and  no  additional  nitrogen  is  added  to  the  soil?  How 
many  years  would  the  phosphoric  acid  hold  out?  How 
many  the  potash? 

5.  If  the  wheat  straw,  two  tons  an  acre,  is  annually 
restored  to  this  land,  how  many  years  will  it  take  to  en- 
tirely exhaust  the  soil  of  these  three  elements  of  plant 
food? 

6.  This  farmer  does  not  permit  his  land  to  run  down. 
He  uses  a  wheat  fertilizer  on  his  wheat  consisting  of  1,200 
pounds  of  dissolved  bone,  500  pounds  of  sulphate  of  am- 
monia, and  300  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash.  He  uses 
250  pounds  of  this  mixture  an  acre.  State  the  percent- 
ages of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  in  this  mix- 
ture. 

7.  If  300  pounds  of  this  mixture  were  used  on  each 
acre,  how  many  pounds  of  potential  plant  food  would  be 
added  to  the  soil  ? 

8.  When  22  bushels  of  wheat  and  one  ton  of  straw 
are  removed  how  many  pounds  of  plant  food  will  be 
drawn  out  of  the  soil  ? 

9.  How  many  pounds  of  the  fertilizer  mixture  men- 
tioned in  Problem  6  will  be  required  to  equal  the  draft 
of  the  wheat  crop  mentioned  in  Problem  8? 

10.  The  farmer  decides  to  try  a  new  fertilizer  he  finds 
advertised.    This  fertilizer  analysis  is  known  as  an  8-3-3, 


MISCELLANEOUS  PROBLEMS.  245 

or  one  analyzing  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  3  per  cent 
nitrogen,  and  3  per  cent  potash.  The  ingredients  used 
are  acid  phosphate,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  kainit.  How 
many  pounds  of  each  of  these  will  be  needed  to  make  a 
ton  of  the  mixture  that  is  to  be  an  8-3-3  fertilizer? 

11.  What  is  the  value  of  this  fertilizer  mentioned  in 
Problem  10,  on  basis  of  plant  food  if  nitrogen  costs  20 
cents,  phosphoric  acid  5  cents,  and  potash  5  cents  each  a 
pound  ? 

12.  What  is  the  money  value  of  a  fertilizer  that  ana- 
lyzes 7-3-4? 

13.  What  is  the  money  value  of  a  ton  of  fertilizer 
composed  of  1,600  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  400 
pounds  of  kainit? 

14.  Of  another  fertilizer  that  contains  1,600  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate  and  400  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash? 

15.  Of  another  one  that  contains  1,600  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate,  200  pounds  of  kainit,  and  200  pounds  of  muri- 
ate of  potash  ? 

16.  A  fertilizer  agent  tries  to  induce  this  farmer  to 
purchase  a  new  fertihzer  analyzing  2.4  per  cent  of  am- 
monia, 9  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  2  per  cent  of 
potash.    What  is  this  fertilizer  worth  a  ton? 

17.  A  neighbor  farmer  has  been  using  a  fertilizer  con- 
taining Sy2  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  1  per  cent  of 
nitrogen,  and  2  per  cent  of  potash.  The  cost  is  $25  a  ton. 
Another  neighbor  uses  a  fertilizer  that  costs  $26  a  ton 
but  analyzes  5  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  3  per  cent  nitro- 
gen, and  1^  per  cent  potash.  In  which  fertilizer  is  the 
more  plant  food  secured  ? 

18.  If  the  price  of  the  fertilizer  that  sells  for  $25  a 


246  FARM   ARITHMETIC. 

ton  is  right,  at  what  price  a  ton  should  the  fertilizer 
bought  by  the  neighbor  be  sold  by  the  ton  ? 

19.  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  corn,  clover  hay, 
and  alfalfa  hay  ? 

20.  On  this  farm  there  are  available  for  feeding  the 
dairy  cows  corn  silage,  clover  hay,  cottonseed  meal,  and 
wheat  bran.  The  cows  weigh  1,000  pounds  and  average 
22  pounds  of  milk  a  day.  Using  these  feeding  stuffs, 
compound  a  ration  containing  these  feeds  that  will  ap- 
proximate the  standard  for  such  animals. 

21.  What  is  the  daily  cost  per  cow  for  feeding  the 
above  ration  when  corn  silage  is  worth  $2  a  ton,  clover 
hay  $12,  cottonseed  meal  $32,  and  wheat  bran  $28? 

22.  A  neighbor  has  a  herd  of  similar  cows.  He  feeds 
timothy  hay,  corn  stover,  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  and  oats. 
How  many  pounds  daily  of  each  of  these  foods  should  be 
fed  in  order  to  approximate  the  standard,  the  cows  yield- 
ing 22  pounds  daily  ? 

23.  What  is  the  daily  cost  of  the  ration  provided  in 
Problem  22,  when  timothy  is  worth  $18  a  ton,  corn  stover 
$6,  corn  meal  $30,  wheat  bran  $28,  and  oats  50  cents  a 
bushel  ? 

24.  This  farmer  feeds  his  work  horses  a  ration  con- 
sisting of  corn,  oats,  wheat  bran,  and  timothy  hay.  How 
many  pounds  of  each  feed  may  he  give  each  horse  per 
day,  the  horses  weighing  approximately  1,000  pounds  each 
and  doing  moderate  or  medium  work  ? 

25.  If  each  horse  is  fed  the  above  ration  through- 
out the  year,  what  will  be  the  cost  of  the  food  consumed 
when  corn  at  the  farm  is  worth  65  cents  a  bushel,  oats 
56  cents,  wheat  bran  $28  a  ton,  and  timothy  hay  $18  a  ton. 


MISCELLANEOUS  PROBLEMS.  247 

26.  A  neighbor  feeds  his  horses  of  the  same  weight 
10  pounds  of  hay  and  14  pounds  of  oats  each  day.  What 
does  his  horse  feed  cost  per  day  per  horse  if  hay  is 
worth  $18  a  ton  and  oats  56  cents  a  bushel  ? 

27.  Another  neighbor,  with  similar  horses,  uses  10 
pounds  of  hay,  9  pounds  of  corn,  and  2  pounds  of  oil 
meal.  If  corn  is  worth  65  cents  a  bushel  and  oil  meal 
$30  a  ton,  what  is  the  cost  per  day  for  feeding  a  horse 
on  this  neighbor's  farm? 

28.  Compare  the  digestible  nutrients  of  the  two  rations 
suggested  in  Problems  26  and  27.  Which  is  the  cheaper 
ration  and  what  is  the  difference  in  cents? 

29.  Suppose  10  horses  are  kept  on  a  farm,  what  is  the 
difference  in  dollars  between  the  two  rations? 

30.  Two  neighbors  are  dairy  farmers.  Each  has  40 
cows  in  his  herd.  Dairyman  A  feeds  daily  8  months  the 
following  ration  to  his  cows:  58  pounds  of  silage,  6.8 
pounds  of  mixed  hay,  2  pounds  of  oil  meal,  and  2  pounds 
of  wheat  bran.  Dairyman  B  feeds  the  following  ration: 
4.7  pounds  of  corn  stover,  6.4  pounds  of  mixed  hay,  2.5 
pounds  of  oil  meal,  5  pounds  of  corn  meal,  and  6  pounds 
of  bran.  The  feeds  are  worth  at  each  farm  the  follow- 
ing prices :  Corn  silage,  $2  a  ton ;  corn  stover,  $6  a  ton ; 
mixed  hay,  $12;  linseed  oil,  $34;  wheat  bran,  $34;  and 
corn,  $30.  Determine  the  daily  cost  of  the  two  rations. 
The  difference  in  dollars  for  40  cows  covering  the  8 
months  or  240-day  feeding  period. 

31.  The  10  cows  on  this  farm  are  known  as  good  but- 
ter cows.  The  average  per  cent  of  butter  fat  for  the  en- 
tire herd  is  5.2  per  cent.  They  yield  220  pounds  of  milk 
on  an  average  each  day  of  the  year.  What  is  the  aver- 
age daily  production  of  butter  fat  in  pounds?  This  is 
equivalent  to  how  many  pounds  of  butter? 


248  FARM    ARITHMETIC, 

32.  A  neighbor  has  25  cows.  Ten  of  them  yield  40 
pounds  each,  daily;  another  ten.  32  pounds;  the  other 
five,  20  pounds  a  day.  The  fat  test  of  the  first  group  is 
3.8  per  cent,  of  the  second  group  4.5  per  cent,  and  of  the 
third  group  5.2  per  cent.  What  quantity  of  fat  is  daily 
produced  by  this  herd  ? 

33.  Suppose  the  fat  test  of  the  first  group  to  be  5.2 
per  cent  and  of  the  third  group  3.8  per  cent,  the  second 
group  remaining  just  the  same.  What  quantity  of  fat 
would  be  produced  daily  ? 

34.  In  a  can  is  a  certain  quantity  of  milk  that  tests 
4.8  per  cent;  in  another  can  is  a  certain  quantity  that 
tests  2.8  per  cent.  The  amount  of  butter  fat  in  both  cans 
is  40  pounds,  one-fourth  of  which  is  in  the  first  can.  How 
much  milk  in  each  can  ? 

35.  In  the  herd  on  this  farm  there  is  one  cow  that 
yields  12,000  pounds  of  milk  that  tests  3.2  per  cent  butter 
fat.  How  does  her  butter  fat  production  compare  with 
another  cow  that  yields  9,400  pounds  of  milk  that  tests 
5.8  i>er  cent  butter  fat  ?  At  40  cents  per  pound  for  butter 
how  much  in  dollars  does  this  diflference  amount  to  ? 

36.  Compare  the  amount  of  plant  food — nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash — removed  in  400  bushels  of 
wheat  and  in  400  bushels  of  potatoes. 

37.  With  nitrogen  worth  20  cents,  phosphoric  acid 
5  cents,  and  potash  5  cents,  what  is  the  plant  food  worth 
that  is  removed  in  the  wheat?    In  the  potatoes? 

38.  How  many  tons  of  silage  should  be  stored  for 
the  use  of  10  cows,  the  intention  being  to  feed  each  cow 
40  pounds  a  day  for  5  months,  then  30  pounds  a  day  for 
2  months,  then  20  pounds  a  day  for  2  months? 


MISCELLANEOUS  PROBLEMS.  249 

39.  If  14  tons  of  silage  is  grown  to  an  acre,  how  many 
acres  will  be  necessary  to  grow  the  supply  required  for 
this  10-cow  herd? 

40.  It  is  advisable  to  feed  not  less  than  2  inches  of 
silage  out  of  the  silo  each  day  to  insure  that  it  does  not 
spoil  on  top.  If  a  minimum  of  300  pounds  is  fed  a  day, 
what  should  be  the  diameter  in  feet  of  the  silo? 

41.  A  neighbor  desires  to  build  a  silo?  He  has  40 
cows  in  his  herd.  At  times  he  expects  to  feed  as  little 
as  800  pounds  of  silage  a  day.  What  should  be  the 
diameter  in  feet  of  his  silo? 

42.  He  expects  to  feed  his  cows  for  240  days,  averag- 
ing for  this  period  35  pounds  of  silage  a  day  for  each 
of  the  40  cows  in  his  herd.  With  the  diameter  selected 
in  Problem  41,  what  height  of  silo  will  be  required  in 
order  to  store  the  full  amount  of  silage  wanted  ? 

43.  How  many  staves  will  be  required  for  a  round 
silo  that  is  to  be  16  feet  in  diameter  and  34  feet  high,  the 
staves  being  6  inches  wide  and  2  inches  thick? 

44.  How  many  staves  and  how  much  lumber  will  be 
required  to  build  the  silo  of  the  dimensions  called  for  in 
Problem  42,  the  staves  being  3  inches  thick  and  8  inches 
wide  ? 

45.  The  farm  under  discussion  contains  75  acres 
in  the  form  of  a  square.  What  is  the  length  of  each  of 
the  four  sides  ?    The  diagonal  ? 

46.  A  neighbor's  farm  contains  80  acres,  rectangular 
in  shape.  The  length  is  just  twice  the  width.  What  is 
the  length  of  the  side?    Of  the  end? 

47.  On  this:  farm  is  a  circular  cistern  7  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  7  feet  deep.  How  many  gallons  will  it  hold 
when  full? 


2bi)  FARM    ARITHMETIC. 

48.  When  disposing  of  his  calves  the  farmer  is  paid 
$50  each  for  4  pure  breds,  $25  each  for  4  grade  yearHngs, 
and  $6  each  for  two  calves.  He  sells  80  hogs,  60  of  them 
in  the  summer.  They  average  226  pounds,  and  he  is  paid 
$7.35  per  hundred.  He  sells  12  hogs  during  the  v^inter 
at  $8.15  per  hundred,  the  twelve  averaging  195  pounds 
each.  The  other  8  he  slaughters  at  home.  They  *'dress 
out"  84  per  cent,  and  bring  12  cents  a  pound.  What  was 
the  total  sum  received  for  the  10  calves  and  the  80  hogs  ? 

49.  If  these  transactions  were  entered  in  an  account, 
show  how  the  facts  in  Problem  48  could  be  entered  so 
as  to  give  all  the  information  and  show  the  total  receipts. 

50.  Prepare  an  inventory  of  a  75-acre  farm,  placing 
in  it  the  land  and  animals  as  mentioned,  with  valuations 
as  typical  of  your  community,  and  include  all  other  tools, 
implements,  and  appliances  that  would  be  customarily  used 
in  your  section  on  such  a  farm,  and  that  would  be  ex- 
pected if  the  work  were  properly  done.  Make  an  estimate 
of  the  respective  values  of  these  tools  and  implements. 


ANSWERS   TO   PROBLEMS 


CHAPTER  I 

2.  130;  1,870.  3.  94;  152.  4.  691.5.  5.  70.5+304=374.5.  8. 
144;  54;  36.  9.  46.1;  17.3;  11.5;  74.9;  922;  346;  230.  10.  33.6; 
12.8;  9.6.  11.  0.75;  0.25;  0.99;  52;  20;  36;  12;  6;  18.  12.  243.4; 
89.7;  51.2.  13.  Wheat  20,  7.6,  5.0;  Oats  19.6,  7.3,  5.5;  Cotton 
0.50,  0.17,  0.66;  Corn  32.3,  11.5,  6.6;  Timothy  28.6,  11.0,  19.8; 
Potatoes  10.2,  5.1,  15.3.  15.  72.3;  23.5;  62.6.  16.  10.7;  4.5;  4.6. 
17.  34.0;  12.1;  34.3.  20.  452.  21.  101;  469;  1,255.  22.  152;  555; 
3,263.  23.  42;  179;  260.  24.  94;  367;  2,472.  25.  285;  937;  3,547. 
26.  6,106;  24,817;  24,722.  28.  400.  29.  280.  31.  18.  32.  86. 
33.  280.  34.  250.  35.  1,000;  960;  250.  36.  20;  21;  80.  37.  96; 
176;  26.  38.4.8.  39.8.8.  40.1.3.  43.  201;  44;  103.  44.17.4. 
45.  86;  313;  103.  46.  25.  47.  7.3;  3.3;  1.8.  48.  29.2;  13.2;  7.2. 
49.  7.3;  2.8;  2.5.  50.  14.6;  5.6;  5.0.  51.  38.5;  14.0;  12.4.  52.7.0; 
4.3;  9.6.  53.  9.0;  6.8;  7.5.  54.  46.6.  55.  49.3.  56.  1,142;  375; 
480;  83  (inert  matter).  57.  872;  714;  314;  100  (inert  matter). 
58.  857;  0;  357;  104;  682  (inert)  :  or  857;  312;  0;  104;  727  (inert)  : 
or  857;  156;  179;  104;  704  (inert)  :  or  etc.  60.  $19  per  ton.  61. 
$13.70.  62.  $21.20.  63.  $17.45.  65.  $17.  66.  $17.  67.  $20. 
68.  $32.  69.  2.  70.  No.  1;  No.  2.  71.  $22.65.  72.  8%. 
74.  2.5%.  75.  3%.  76.  48.5.  77.  33.  78.  49.4.  79.  8-1.6-8; 
$20.80. 

CHAPTER  II 

80.  1,506;  50;  80;  118;  228;  18.  81.  15.3;  306.  82.  70.4. 
83.  1,577.  84.  544.  86.  1.73;  32.4;  0.68.  87.  88.  88.  55.3. 
89.  2.0;  37.2.  90.  12  pounds;  223  pounds.  91.  2.4.  92.  206. 
93.  248.  96.  1  to  1.3;  1  to  16.1;  1  to  5.9;  1  to  3.9.  97.  Wide  are 
timothy  hay,  com;  Medium  are  wheat,  oats,  clover  hay,  alfalfa 
hay;  Narrow  are  cottonseed,  cottonseed 'meal.  99.  12.5.  102.  6.8. 
103.  4.1.  104.  6.2.  105.  5.9.  106.  For  11  pounds  milk  daily, 
feed  for  each  cow  per  month  in  pounds,  750,  48,  300,  9;  feed  for  20 
cows  per  year  in  tons,  91,  6,  36.5,  1.  For  22  pounds  milk,  corre- 
sponding quantities  are  900,  105,  390,  15  and  110,  13,  48, 
2.  109.  14;  1;  1;  6;  1  to  7.5.  112.  4.3  cents.  113.  2.9. 
114.  510.  115.  1.27  cents.  116.  $15.42;  24.7  cents.  117.  1.46 
cents.  118.  28.3  cents.  119.  $3.68.  120.  2.41.  121.  $26.08.  122. 
$21.18.  123.  $18.61.  124.  $21.76.  125.  $14.62.  126.  0.97  cents, 
or  86%.  127.  $1,000  per  100  tons  of  hay,  or  $1,940  per  100  tons 
of  nutrients,  or  $925  too  much  for  100  tons  of  timothy  hay  which 

251 


252  ANSWERS   TO    PROBLEMS 

should  cost  but  $10.75  per  ton.  128-129.  No  exact  answers  can 
be  obtained  when  limited  to  the  feeds  named. 

CHAPTER  III 
132.  0.68  pounds  more  in  ribs.  133.  0.16;  1.74  more  in  ham. 
134.  6.1;  37.  135.  0.8  pounds  more  in  wheat  flour,  or  0.3  pounds 
more  in  corn  meal  if  fat  be  reduced  to  carbohydrate  equivalent. 
136.  4.1.  137.  2.9.  138.  2.6  times  that  needed.  139.  1.8  times 
that  needed.  140.  As  in  128  and  129  the  standard  can  be  only 
approximated.  The  standard  itself  is  only  an  average.  The 
requirement  for  a  given  individual  may  differ  greatly  from  this 
average.  145.  2.56  pounds.  146.  39  cents.  147.  33 1  cents. 
148.  25cents.  149.  6.4cents.  150.  0.58 pounds.  151.  1.51  pounds. 
152.  28.1.  153.  15.4  pounds.  154.  Girl  H,  0.01,  0.2,  1.3  pounds; 
Boy  U,  0.01,  0.4,  1.5  pounds.  155.  Girl  11.2;  Boy  15.7.  156.  78. 
157.  270.  158.  202.5.  159.  10,500  pounds.  160.  63.  161.  47.3. 
162.  222.8.  164.  4.3;  8.7;  6.5.  165.  4.3.  166.  6.5.  167.  3.3. 
168.  5.6.     169.  4.4. 

CHAPTER  IV 
170.  6.6.  171.  6.0.  172.  1.03.  173.  19%  when  butter  is  25 
cents  per  pound.  174.  85.9.  175.  0.76.  176.  3.3.  177.  4.3. 
178.  5.7.  179.  1,718.  180.  15.2.  181.  66.  182.  86.  183.  114. 
184.  1.08  pounds.  185.  30.4  pounds.  186.  38.9  pounds.  187.  34.1. 
188.  $1.20.  189.  28.4.  190.  900  pounds.  191.  4.  192.  200 
pounds;  1,000  pounds.  193.  156  pounds.  194.  $48;  $87.  195. 
The  second;  24  pounds.  196.  41.7  pounds;  8.3  pounds.  198.  $53.90. 
199.  $37.63.  200.  103,000  pounds.  201.  24.  202.  4,372  pounds. 
203.  4  pounds.  204.  1  pound.  205.  J  pound.  206.  23  pounds. 
207.  93  pounds.  208.  373  pounds.  209.  $93.33.  210.  $23.33. 
211.  $5.33.    212.  1.9  pounds.     213.  177  pounds.     214.  327.     220. 

260.  221.  1,660.  222.  20.  223.  60.  224.  1  to  199.  225.  88.5 
pounds  fat  or  103.3  pounds  butter.  226.  $25.82.  227.  740  pounds. 
228.  680  pounds.  229.  480  pounds.  230.  100  pounds.  231.  1  to 
3.4.  232.  $517.  233.  95.  234.  26  cents.  235.  78  cents.  236.2.58. 
237.  $4.  238.  $2.80.  239.  $1.33.  240.  $1.23.  242.  66.4  cents. 
243.  $1.25.  244.  20  cents;  25  cents;  97  cents.  245.  $1.45. 
247.  206  pounds.     248.  300. 

CHAPTER  V 
250.  17.6;   16.5.     251.  17.1.     252.  1,113   tons.     253.  196  tons; 
190  tons.     255.  If.      256.  3.4.      257.  3,606;    5,543;    8,592.      258. 
2,048;    2,983;    4,986.        259.  5,654;    8,526;    13,578.        260.    117. 

261.  404.  262.  454.  263.  77;  231;  220.  264.  57.  265.  136. 
266.  1.2.  267.  140  in  upper  one  foot  if  dry  soil  weighs  80  pounds. 
268.  328.  269.  394.  270.  49.  271.  80.  272.  1,088.  273.  714. 
274.  374.  275.  3.1.  276.  2.96.  277.  3.67.  278.  5.95.  279.  24. 
280.  101.     281.  40.     282.  3.6.     283.  50. 


ANSWERS  TO   PROBLEMS  253 

CHAPTER  VI 
284.  25.6  increase;  4.3  decrease;  20.3  increase.  286.  94,900,000; 
98,500,000.  287.  25,000,000,000  bushels;  $14,000,000,000.  289. 
$8.71;  $14.50.  291.  523  bushels.  292.  $162.  293.  3.8;  468,000,000. 
294.  57.7  cents;  96.2  cents.  295.  52,680,000;  44,380,000;  23.2. 
296.  $2,000,000,000;  $20,000,000,000.  297.  $7.21;  $14.81.  298. 
2,055,000.  299.  320.  300.  $180.  301.  6.5.  302.  1.36  barrels. 
303.  62,000,000  bushels.  304.  658,000,000.  305.  7.2.  306. 
25,400,000  bushels.  307.  $24,400,000.  308.  4,670,000,000. 
5.267,000,000.  309.  164.4.  310.  0.33.  311.  $34.32;  $66.13. 
312.  6.9  cents;  13.4  cents;  $21.96  in  1909.  313.  $860.90;  12.8%. 
314.  10,640,000,000.  315.  $46;  2.3  cents;  $3.78;  $25.74.  316. 
28.4  bushels;  $11.79;  31.4  bushels;  $7.35.  317.  22.5  bushels;  $12.01; 
26.7  bushels;  $9.31.  318.  13.4  bushels;  $9.30;  12.5  bushels;  $5.98. 
319.  16.9  bushels;  $16.63;  13.9  bushels;  $7.16.  320.  35.8  bushels; 
$26.26;  25.6  bushels;  $22.46.  321.  41  cents;  23  cents.  322.  53 
cents;  35  cents;  69  cents;  48  cents;  63  cents;  51  cents.  323.  73 
cents;  88  cents;  1.6  cents;  2.0  cents.  324.  1.6.  325.  2.5  tons; 
1.3  tons.  326.  1.1  tons.  327.  $281,000,000.  328.  72,200,000; 
97,470,000;  $8.44.  329.  389,300,000;  59,250,000.  330.  $69,800,000. 
331.  43  cents;  60  cents.  332.  44,260,000.  333.  $35,400,000. 
334.  11,800.  336.  3^  337.  2.1.  338.  0.47  pounds.  339.  11. 
340.  15,700.  341.  130  bushels.  342.  195  bushels.  343.  156 
bushels  if  one  ear  to  stalk;  343  bushels  if  one  and  one  half  ears 
to  stalk.  344.  151  bushels.  345.  121  bushels;  $15.  346.  $2  per 
acre.  347.  $127,600,000.  348.  $153,100,000.  349.  78;  87;  94. 
350.  20.5%  better;  8%  better.  351.  About  200,000,000.  352. 
96%.  353.  266,000  bales  or  $17,600,000.  354.  $26,000,000. 
355.  $16,000,000.  356.  $31,600,000.  357.  5,267,000.  358. 
$140,000,000.  359.  $560,000,000;  $632,000,000.  360.  8.2.  361. 
$55.39.  362.  $22.91.  363.  $54.60;  $30.16;  230.5%  in  acreage, 
498.6%  in  total  value,  and  81.0%  in  value  per  acre. 

CHAPTER  VII 

374.  272.  375.  17,152.  376.  1,088.  377.  $217.60.  378.  $1,285. 
379.  $5,140.  380.  2  pecks;  1  bushel;  2  bushels;  4  bushels;  8  bushels; 
16  bushels.  381.  348.  382.  $1,531.  383.  120.  384.  $118.80; 
$51;  $67.80.  385.  Yes.  386.  $11.50  on  the  i  acre.  387.  $18. 
388.  $350.  389.  $360;  $540;  $180.  390.  18.5%;  33^%;  100%; 
133i%.  391.  156.  392.  804;  924.  393.  $69.  394.  90  cents. 
395.  Commercial  is  50  cents  cheaper  per  barrel.    396.  Lost  $5.34. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

397.  $1,562,000,000.  398.  $2,505,000,000;       160.3.  399. 

$582,600,000;  23.3.  400.  $407,800,000;  $11,010,000.  401. 
$233,000,000;  $377.60.  402.  $5,300,000;  77.6.  403.  63,760,000. 
404.  23,100,000      4,620,000;     59,270,000;     52,480,000;     2,450,000. 


254  ANSWERS  TO   PROBLEMS 

405.  $20.33.  406.  $1,129,000,000.  407.  61,360,000.  408.  83.1; 
9.6;  12.1;  97.0.  412.  16.  414.  Slightly  less  than  27  inches. 
415.  71  inches.  416.  71  inches;  71  inches.  417.  25  inches. 
418.  62  inches;  62  inches.  419.  17.5  hands  or  70  inches.  420.  70 
inches.  421.  28  inches.  422.  9f  inches.  424.  25.1  inches;  18.9 
inches.  425.  19.9  inches.  427.  2.84  pounds;  2.61  pounds.  428. 
8.7;  6.9.  429.  752;  1,401.  430.  86.4.  431.  A  10%  increase  of 
feed  produces  an  81%  increase  in  gain  in  weight;  $300  with  steers 
at  $8  per  100.  432.  2,557  pounds;  781  pounds;  1,468  pounds; 
2,044pounds.  433.  $31.47;  $72.68;  $118.64;  $183.02.  434.  $39.05. 
435.  $95.42.  436.  $143.08.  437.  $204.56.  438.  $7.58;  $22.37; 
$24.44;  $21.54.  439.  About  26  months  (middle  third  period); 
About  18  months;  About  10  months;  About  5  months;  At  the 
earliest  possible  date.  Note: — The  average  cost  of  any  period  is 
reached  at  about  the  middle  of  the  period.  440.  5.4  cents;  44.6.  441. 
216.  442.  300;  516.  443.  12.8;  10.4.  444.  $227.50.  445.  6.8. 
446.  8.3.  447.  9.68  cents.  448.  13.28  cents.  449.  22.23  cents. 
450.  10.67  cents.  451.  19.46  cents.  452.  9.56  cents.  453.  69.98. 
454.  $42.28.  455.  $5.14.  456.  $69.85.  457.  $12.63.  458.  $79.12. 
459.  7,200  pounds;  4,320  pounds.  460.  $828.  461.  $352.80. 
462.  $209.50.  463.  $143.30.  464.  68.4.  465.  33.6.  466.  $3. 
467.  $4.  468.  $3.  469.  $2.  470.  $1.50.  471.  15  cents.  472.  $2 
profit.  473.  65  cents.  474.  4,013.  475.  280,600,000;  233,800,000. 
476.  1,600,000,000  dozen.  477.  50  cents;  $140,300,000.  478. 
$308,800,000.  479.  $524,100,000.  480.  12.  481.  7.4.  482.  7. 
483.  3.6.     484.  2.     485.  1.9. 

CHAPTER  IX 
486.  4.6  hours;  41  minutes.  487.  85.  488.  2.2  hours;  0.26  hours. 
489.  9.3.  490.  65.5.  491.  30  minutes;  10.4  minutes.  492.  19.9; 
19.2.  193.  17.6  hours;  8.1  hours.  494.  41  cents;  17  cents.  495. 
19  cents;  10  cents.  496.  9.6  cents;  4.0  cents.  497.  6.0  cents; 
2.7  cents.  498.  3.1  cents;  2.3  cents.  499.  $4.03;  $1.64.  500.  Rye 
2.64  hours;  1.01  hours;  18.9  cents;  15.9  cents.  Sweet  potatoes 
3.02  hours;  1.16  hours;  22.9  cents;  9.8  cents.  Tomatoes  2.16  hours; 
0.9  hours;  24.1  cents;  10.5  cents.  Strawberries  26  minutes;  6.5 
minutes;  5.8  cents;  2.4  cents.  Beets  1.47  hours;  41  minutes;  10.8 
cents;  6.7  cents. 

CHAPTER  X 
502.  6,400  foot-pounds.  503.  1,200  foot-pounds.  504.  120,000 
foot-pounds.  506.  400,000.  507.  50,000,000  foot-pounds; 
30,000,000  foot-pounds.  508.  75  pounds.  510.  2^  miles  per  hour; 
If  miles  per  hour.  511.  1.2  horsepower.  512.  3.7.  513.  7.4 
horsepower.  515.  f.  516.  0.8;  0.96;  1.76.  517.  1.7  miles  per  hour. 
518.  10  miles  per  hour;  5  miles  per  hour;  3.3  miles  per  hour;  1.25 
miles  per  hour.      519.  3.3  miles  per  hour;  2.5  miles  per  hour. 


ANSWERS  TO   PROBLEMS  255 

520.1.1.  521.  0.93;  0.67;  0.53.  522.  280 pounds.  523.  2/15;  2/15. 
526.  30  inches.  528.  100  pounds.  529.  100  pounds.  530.  200 
pounds.  531.  1|  miles  per  hour;  2.5  miles  per  hour;  3f  miles  per 
hour.  532.  133  pounds;  83  pounds.  533.  H  miles  per  hour. 
535  6f  per  day;  6  per  day;  10  per  day.  536.  200.  537.  89. 
538  100  pounds.  539.  200  pounds.  540.  300  pounds.  541.  150 
pounds.  542.  200  pounds.  543.  200  pounds.  545.  5.04  pounds. 
546.  6.47  pounds.  547.  3  horsepower.  548.  4,500  pounds. 
549.  3.85  pounds.  550.  2.8  miles  per  hour.  551.  40;  48  hours  or 
4.8  days.  552.  2f.  553.  2|.  554.  1.78  (i.  e.  two  are  more  than 
sufficient).  555.  3.59  pounds.  556.  4.22  pounds.  557.  3,500 
pounds.  558.  1,100  pounds.  559.  121;  22.  560.  121;  22.  561.3. 
562.  18.  566.  3.  567.  266.  568.  88.  569.  2.84  (i.  e.  three  will 
do  it  easily).  570.  2.  571.  101;  139;  173;  282;  253;  374.  572. 
29%.  573.  3.8%.  574.  58%.  575.  48%.  576.  74.3%. 
577.  150  pounds;  46.1.  578.  200  pounds;  279  pounds;  498  pounds; 
755  pounds.  579.  High  29  pounds,  low  3  pounds;  High  22%, 
low  2%.  580.  H  miles  per  hour;  1  mile  per  hour.  581.  23. 
582.  36.  583.  937  pounds;  1,351  pounds.  584.  1^  miles  per  hour; 
I  mile  per  hour.  585.  22.4.  586.  1.22.  588.  28  pounds;  49  pounds; 
21.5;  20.9.  589.  15.7;  8.4.  590.  6.4;  4.1.  591.2,550.  592.2,140. 
594.  1  to  30;  1  to  16.  595.  52.8  feet;  12  feet.  596.  3.1;  1;  8.3. 
597.  24  feet;  500  feet.  599.  500  pounds;  —100  pounds  (i.  e.  the 
team  or  the  brakes  must  hold  back  with  a  force  of  100  pounds). 
600.  235  pounds;  — 125  pounds;  640  pounds;  — 440  pounds.  601. 
6;  300  pounds.  ^  602.  2|  miles  per  hour;  1.4  miles  per  hour  (weight 
of  horses  not  included,  otherwise  1.1  miles  per  hour).  The  rule 
gives  over  6  miles  per  hour  which,  of  course,  is  too  high;  As  fast 
as  safety  will  permit.  603.  More  than  one-half  of  the  time. 
604.  9.4;  3  to  32  or  about  1  to  11. 

CHAPTER  XI 

606.  144.  607.  5;  4;  8;  15.  609.  32;  21.3;  60.  610.  43;  9;  98. 
611.  216;  128;  756;  528;  900;  160;  213;  160.  612.  3,061.  613 
$137.75.  614.  3,490.  615.  $97.72.  616.  5,712.  617.  $171.36. 
618.  $109.50.  619.  $25.50.  620.  $222.50.  621.  $553.61.  622. 
7,840.  623.  900;  1,200.  624.  11,520.  626.  12.600  at  800  per 
square.  627.  19,000  at  800  per  square.  628.  9  feet;  f.  630.  20. 
631.  113.  632.  3i.  633.  U.  634.  U.  635.  783.  636.  47. 
637.  41.     638.  695.     639.  24^.     640.  10^     641.  Sf. 

CHAPTER  XII 

642.  $30.00;  $15.00.  643.  $37.50.  644.  $38.00;  $121.60;  $319.20. 
645.  $324.00;  $518.00;  $4,147.20.  646.  5  cents;  $2.50;  $8.00; 
$1,152.00.  647.  83i  648.  $365,000,000.  649.  8,726.  650. 
$69,800.    651.  7,300.    652.     7  tons.    653.    28.    654.     122^ 


256  ANSWERS   TO   PROBLEMS 

CHAPTER  XIII 
655.  $299.00.  656.  $465.00.  657.  $23.50.  658.  14.3.  659.  53,8. 
660.  150  bushels  per  acre.  661.  $75.  662.  30,960  bushels;  11,040 
bushels.  663.  $5,520.  664.  15,480.  665.  180%  more  in  the  tiled. 
667.  59;  118.  668.  24;  12.  669.  34;  17.  670.  21;  10.  671.  24; 
48.     672.  5;  10;  2^     673.  12-inch;  20-inch.     674.  4-inch;   9-inch. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

677.  113  square  feet;  491  square  feet;  804  square  feet;  1,257 
square  feet;  37.7  feet;  78.5  feet;  100.5  feet;  125.7  feet.  679.  141.8 
feet.  680.  160  feet.  681.  200  feet.  682.  29.1.  683.  11.4.  684. 
10,800.  685.  9,570.  686.  $237.60;  $210.54;  $27.06.  687.  150. 
689.  11.3  feet.  690.  13.8  feet.  691.  14.9  feet;  17.8  feet.  693.  108 
tons  in  180  days.  694.  307.  695.  208.  697.  338,000;  169.  698 
33.3  feet;  30  feet.  700.  Use  4  square  feet  per  cow.  Diameter 
11.3  feet;  Height  28  feet.  701.  Account  of  30-pound  feeding  use 
4  square  feet  per  cow.  Diameter  11,3  feet;  Height  37^  feet. 
Better  build  two,  each  20  or  more  feet  high.  702.  Diameter  16 
feet;  Height  32  feet.  703.  Diameter  18  feet;  Height  36  feet.  Or 
two,  diameter  16  feet;  Height  25  feet.  705.  100.  706.  96. 
707.  13  tons  more  in  square.  708.  28.3  feet.  709.  34.6  feet. 
711.  126.     712.     95.     713.  153. 


CHAPTER  XV 
722.  1,136  pounds.    723.  13.1  cents.    724.  $27.72.    725.  $56.52. 
730.  84.8.     731.  201  pounds.     732.  8  cents.     733.  8  1/7  cents. 

CHAPTER  XVI 
751.  $3.28.  752.  640.  753.  f  acre.  754.  $160  or  38%. 
755.  $22.40  and  interest  every  16  years.  756.  9.9%.  757.  2  1/7 
acres.  758.  54,500.  759.  $1,875;  $1,575.  760.  $530.40.  761. 
$1,200.  762.  $28.84.  763.  $160.  764.  $131.16.  765.  $3.28. 
766.  $196.74.  767.  $7,870.  768.  $106.54.  769.  $15,000.  770. 
750,000,000.  771.  126,000,000.  772.  $37,800,000.  773.  42,000,000. 
774.  3,200.  775.  96,000.  776.  38,400,000.  777.  $360.  778. 
1,500;  $60.  779.  $11.40.  780.  $154.  781.  $124.  783.  102,000 
pounds;  96,000  pounds;  84,000  pounds;  66,000  pounds.  784.  26 
square  inches;  5.1  inches;  5f  inches.  785.  4.8  inches.  787.  933 
pounds;  415  pounds;  2|  times  as  strong.  788.  130  pounds.  789. 
220  pounds.  790.  1,020  pounds;  960  pounds.  791.  310  pounds. 
793.  1,600  pounds;  710  pounds.  794.  7.2  inches;  4  planks  bolted 
together.  795.  71  pounds.  It  would,  of  course,  stand  many  times 
this  weight.  796.  67  pounds.  797.  62  pounds;  250  pounds;  560 
pounds.  798.  76  pounds;  64  pounds;  76  pounds.  799.  23  feet. 
800.  9.1  inches.    801.  12  inches,  if  yellow  pine,  to  carry  1.5  tons. 


ANSWERS   TO    PROBLEMS  257 


CHAPTER  XVII 

802.  7i  803.  4U.  805.  53^  808.  47  feet,  8  inches.  811. 
1,620.  812.  3,000.  813.  5  feet  2  inches.  814.  5  feet  10  inches. 
815.  115.  816.  5  feet.  817.  30^  818.  8  feet  6  inches.  819.  7  feet 
7  inches.  820.  200.  821.  288.  822.  33.  823.  60.  824.  2. 
825.  3i  826.  1,100.  827.  $7.80.  828.  17  cents.  829.  20.4  cents. 
830.  21  cents.  831.  20.8  cents.  832.  $58.40.  833.  $36.50.  836. 
1.96  acres.  837.  800.  838.  2.37.  839.  3.32.  840.  17.50.  841. 
4.59.  842.  12.91.  843.  10.37.  844.  10.00.  845.  6.68.  846. 
2.76.    847.     14.54.     848.  1.10.    849.  15.49.     850.  78.44. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

851.  2.2.  852.  6.9.  853.  9;  4.5  when  tamped.  854.  3;  0.8 
cubic  yards.  855.  0.5  cubic  yards.  857.  3;  5.5.  858.  1,300  feet. 
859.  10.2  cubic  yards  exchisive  of  foundation.  860.  2.8  cubic 
yards  for  roof  and  ends.  861.  154  cubic  yards.  862.  3.4  tubic 
yards;  3.3  cubic  yards.  864.  15.4  sacks;  16  cubic  yards;  3.3  cubic 
yards;  12.6  sacks;  1.7  cubic  yards;  3.4  cubic  yards.  865.  $13.89. 
866.  $11.90.    867.  680  sacks.    868.  11.5  sacks. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 


Table  I. .  Feeding  Standards  for  Farm  Animals. 
The  Wolff-Lehman  Standards  for  feeding  farm  animals  are 
shown  in  the  table  below.    They  indicate  the  amount  of  food  re- 
quired daily  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight. 


Digestible  nutrients 

Animal 

Dry 

matter 

Crude 
pro- 
tein 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Sum  of 
nutri- 
ents 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 

1.  Oxen 

At  rest  in  stall 

At  light  work 

At  medium  work .... 
Atlheavy  work 

2.  Fattening  cattle 

Lbs. 
18.0 
22.0 
25.0 
28.0 

30.0 
30.0 
26.0 

25.0 
27.0 
29.0 
32.0 

20.0 
23.0 

25.0 

30.0 
28.0 

20.0 
24.0 
26.0 

22.0 

36.0 
32.0 
25.0 

Lbs. 
0.7 
1.4 
2.0 
2.8 

2.5 
3.0 
2.7 

1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 

1.2 
1.5 

2.9 

3.0 
3.5 

1.5 
2.0 

2.5 

2.5 

4.5 
4.0 

2.7 

Lbs. 
8.0 
10.0 
11.5 
13.0 

15.0 
14.5 
15.0 

10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 

10.5 
12.0 

15.0 

15.0 
14.5 

9.5 
11.0 
13.3 

15.5 

25.0 
24.0 
18.0 

Lbs. 
0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 

0.5 
0.7 
0.7 

0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.8 

0.2 
0.3 

0.5 

0.5 
0.6 

0.4 
0.6 
0.8 

0.4 

0.7 
0.5 
0.4 

Lbs. 

7.5 

9.7 

12.0 

15.0 

15.6 
17.0 
17.2 

10.2 
12.2 
14.4 
16.0 

9.1 
10.5 

16.3 

16.5 
16.9 

10.0 
12.8 
15.5 

19.0 

31.2 
29.2 
22.0 

1: 

11.8 
7.7 
6.5 
5.3 

6.5 

Second  period 

Third  period 

3.  Milch  cows 

When  yielding  daily: 
11.0  pounds  of  milk 
16.6  pounds  of  milk 
22.0  pounds  of  milk 
27.5  pounds  of  milk 

4.  Sheep 

5.4 
6.2 

6.7 
6.0 
5.7 
4.5 

9.1 

8.5 

5.     Breeding  ewes 

With  lambs 

5.6 

6.    Fattening  sheep 

First  period 

5  4 

Second  period 

7.     Horses 

Light  work 

4.5 
7.0 

Medium  work 

Heavy  work 

6.2 
60 

8.  Brood  sows 

9.  Fattening  swine 

6.6 
5  9 

Second  period 

Third  period 

6.3 
7.0 

APPENDIX. 


261 


Table  I.  Feeding  Standards  for  Growing  Animals — Continued. 


Animal 


Per  day  per  1 ,000  lbs.  live  weight 


Digestible  nutrients 


Dry 

Crude 

Carbo- 

Sum  of 

matter 

pro- 

hy. 

Fat 

nutri- 

tein 

drates 

ents 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

23.0 

4.0 

13.0 

2.0 

21.0 

24.0 

3.0 

12.8 

1.0 

17.0 

27.0 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

13.7 

26.0 

1.8 

12.5 

0.4 

12.8 

26.0 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

11.8 

23.0 

4.2 

13.0 

2.0 

21.5 

24.0 

3.5 

12.8 

1.5 

19.0 

25.0 

2.5 

13.2 

0.7 

15.8 

24.0 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

13.9 

24.0 

1.8 

12.0 

0.4 

13.2 

25.0 

3.4 

15.4 

0.7 

18.4 

25.0 

2.8 

13.8 

0.6 

15.8 

23.0 

2.1 

11.5 

0.5 

12.8 

22.0 

1.8 

11.2 

0.4 

12.0 

22.0 

1.5 

10.8 

0.3 

11.0 

26.0 

4.4 

15.5 

0.9 

20.9 

26.0 

3.5 

15.0 

0.7 

17.8 

24.0 

3.0 

14.3 

0.5 

16.3 

23.0 

2.2 

12.6 

0.5 

13.8 

22.0 

2.0 

12.0 

0.4 

12.8 

44.0 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

38.0 

35.0 

4.8 

22.5 

0.7 

29.0 

32.0 

3.7 

21.3 

0.4 

26.0 

28.0 

2.8 

18.7 

0.3 

22.2 

25.0 

2.1 

15.3 

0.2 

17.9 

44.0 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

38.0 

35.0 

5.0 

23.1 

0.8 

30.0 

33.0 

4.3 

22.3 

0.6 

28.0 

30.0 

3.6 

20.5 

0.4 

25.1 

26.0 

3.0 

18.3 

0.3 

22.0 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 


10.  Growing  cattle 

Dairy  breeds 
Age  in    Average  live  weight 
months     per  head,  lbs. 

2-  3 . 150 

3-6 300 

6-12 500 

12-18 700 

18-24 900 

11.  Growing  cattle 

Beef  breeds 

2-  3 160 

3-  6 330 

6-12 550 

12-18 750 

18-24 950 

12.  Growing  sheep 

Wool  breeds 

4-6 60 

6-8 75 

8-11 80 

11-15 90 

15-20 100 

13.  Growing  sheep 

Mutton  breeds 

4-6 60 

6-8 80 

8-11 100 

11-15 120 

15-20 150 

14.  Growing  swine 

Breeding  stock 

2-3 50 

3-  5 100 

5-  6 120 

6-  8 200 

8-12 250 

15.  Growing,  fatten'g  swine 

2-3 50 

3-  5 100 

5-  6 150 

6-  8 200 

9-12 300 


4.5 
5.1 
6.8 
7.5 
8.5 


4.2 
4.7 
6.0 
6.8 
7.2 


5.0 
5.4 
6.0 
7.0 

7.7 


4.0 
4.8 
5.2 
6.3 
6.5 


4.0 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 

7.5 


4.0 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.4 


262 


APPENDIX. 


Table  II.    Nutrients   and  Fertilizer   Constituents  of  Com- 
mon Feeding  Stuffs. 

The  tables  giving  the  average  digestible  nutrients  and  the  fer- 
tilizing constituents  in  the  following  American  feeding  stuffs  have 
been  adapted  from  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding." 


Name  of  feed 


a 


Digestible  nutrients  Fertilizing  constitu- 
in  100  pounds        ents  in  1,000  pounds 


II 


Grains,  seeds  and  their  parts 

Dent  corn 

Flint  corn 

Sweet  com 

Com  meal 

Com  cob 

Com-and-cob  meal 

Gluten  meal 

Gluten  feed 

Feed  chop 

Germ  oil  meal 

Com  bran 

Wheat 

High-grade  flour 

Red  dog  flour 

Flour  wheat  middlings 

Wheat  middlings , 

Wheat  bran  (all  analyses) 

Wheat  feed 

Wheat  screenings 

Rye 

Rye  flour 

Rye  middlings 

Rye  bran 

Rye  feed 

Barley 

Emmer  (speltz) 

Oats 

Ground  oats 

Oat  middlings 

Oat  feed 

Oat  hulls 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat  flour 

Buckwheat  middlings 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  feed 

Buckwheat  hulls 

Rice 

Rice  polish 

Rice  bran , 

Rice  hulls , 

Canada  field  pea 


Lbs. 
89.4 
88.7 
91.2 
85.0 
89.3 
84.9 

90.5 
90.8 
90.4 
91.4 
90.6 
89.5 
87.6 
90.1 
90.0 
88.8 
88.1 
89.1 
88.4 
91.3 
86.9 
88.2 
88.4 
87.6 
89.2 
92.0 
89.6 
88.0 
91.2 
93.0 
92.6 

86.6 
85.4 
87.2 
91.8 
88.4 
86.8 

87.6 
89.2 
90.3 
91.2 
85.0 


Lbs. 
7.8 
8.0 
8.8 
6.1 
0.5 
4.4 

29.7 

21.3 

6.8 

15.8 

6.0 

8.8 

10.6 

16.2 

16.9 

13.0 

11.9 

12.7 

9.6 

9.5 

5.6 

11.0 

11.2 

12.6 

8.4 

10.0 

8.8 

10.1 

13.1 

5.2 

1.3 

8.1 

5.9 
22.7 

5.9 
15.6 

1.2 

6.4 
7.9 
7.6 
0.3 
19.7 


Lbs. 
66.8 
66.2 
63.7 
64.3 
44.8 
60.0 

42.5 
52.8 
60.5 
38.8 
52.5 
67.5 
65.1 
57.0 
53.6 
45.7 
42.0 
47.1 
48.2 
69.4 
72.2 
52.9 
46.8 
56.6 
65.3 
70.3 
49.2 
52.5 
57.7 
30.1 
38.5 

48.2 
63.0 
37.5 
34.0 
38.2 
28.6 

79.2 
58.6 
38.8 
19.9 
49.3 


Lbs. 
4.3 
4.3 
7.0 
3.5 

2.9 

6.1 
2.9 
7.4 
10.8 
4.8 
1.5 
1.0 
3.4 
4.1 
4.5 
2.5 
4.0 
1.9 
1.2 
0.5 
2.6 
1.8 
2.8 
1.6 
2.0 
4.3 
3.7 
6.5 
2.6 
0.6 

2.4 
1.2 
6.1 
2.0 
4.4 
0.5 

0.4 
5.3 
7.3 
0.7 
0.4 


Lbs. 
16.5 
16.8 
18.6 
14.7 
3.9 
13.6 

54.8 
40.0 
16.8 
34.7 
17.9 
19.0 
19.2 
29.4 
30.7 
27.0 
24.6 
26.1 
20.0 
18.1 
10.7 
22.9 
23.3 
25.1 
19.2 
18.4 
18.2 
19.7 
25.9 
12.8 
5.3 

17.3 
11.0 
42.7 
20.2 
29.3 
7.3 

11.8 
19.0 
19.0 
5.1 
37.9 


Lbs. 
7.1 
7.1 
7.1 
6.3 
0.6 
5.7 

3.3 
3.7 
9.8 
3.9 
10.1 
5.5 
5.7 

12.2 

26.3 

26.9 

20.4 

11.7 

8.6 

8.2 

12.3 

22.8 

7.7 

7.9 

7.6 

7.8 

7.6 

22.5 

6.1 

1.6 

6.9 

6.8 
12.3 

4.2 
15.8 

4.3 

1.8 

26.7 

2.9 

1.7 

8.4 


Lbs. 
5.7 
5.7 
5.7 
4.7 
6.0 
4.7 

0.5 
0.4 
4.9 
2.1 
6.2 
8.7 
5.4 

9.6 

15.3 

15.2 

5.4 

8.4 

5.8 

6.5 

9.6 

14.0 

4.7 

4.8 

5.7 

4.8 

5.0 

15.3 

7.2 

4.9 

3.0 
3.4 
11.4 
12.7 
10.5 
14.7 

0.9 
7.1 
2.4 
1.4 
10.1 


APPENDIX. 


263 


Table  II.     Nutrients   and  Fertilizer   Constituents   of   Com- 
mon Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


Name  of  feed 


E-.S 


Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds 


Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1 ,000  pounds 


Oft 


Oj3 


£M 


Grains,  seeds  &  their  parts — Cont 

Canada  field  pea  meal 

Canada  field  pea  bran 

Bean  meal 

Cowpea 

Soy  bean 

Horse  bean '. 

Kafir  com 

Sorghum  seed 

Broom  corn  seed 

Millet  seed 

Hungarian  grass  seed 

Flaxseed 

Linseed  meal  (old  process) .... 

Linseed  meal  (new  process) 

Cottonseed 

Cottonseed  meal 

Cottonseed  hulls 

Palm-nut  cake 

Cocoanut  cake 

Sunflower  seed 

Sunflower  seed  cake 

Peanut  kernels    (without  hulls) 

Peanut  cake 

Rapeseed  cake 

Factory  by-products 

Dried  brewers'  grains 

Wet  brewers'  grains 

Malt  sprouts 

Dried  distillers'  grains 

Apple  pomace 

Cassava  starch  refuse 

Starch  refuse 

Wet  starch  feed 

Potato  pomace 

Wet  beet  pulp 

Dried  beet  pulp 

Sugar  beet  molasses 

Porto  Rico  molasses 

Dried  molasses  beet  pulp 

Molasses  grains 

Cow's  milk 


Lbs. 
89.5 
89.0 
89.1 
85.4 
88.3 
88.7 

90.1 

87.2 
87.2 
87.9 
90.5 

90.8 
90.2 
91.0 
89.7 
93.0 
88.9 
89.6 

89.7 
91.4 
89.2 
92.5 
89.3 
90.0 


91.3 
23.0 


90.5 
92.4 

17.0 
88.0 
88.0 
31.2 
7.3 

10.2 
91.6 
79.2 
74.1 
92.0 
89.6 

12.8 


Lbs. 
16.8 
7.7 
20.2 
16.8 
29.1 
23.1 

5.2 
4.5 
4.6 
7.1 
6.4 

20.6 
30.2 
31.5 
12.5 
37.6 
0.3 
16.0 

15.4 
14.8 
29.5 
25.1 
42.8 
25.3 


20.0 
4.9 


20.3 
22.8 

0.6 
0.4 
2.4 
3.7 
0.4 

0.5 
4.1 
4.7 
1.4 
6.1 
10.8 

3.4 


Lbs. 
51.7 
41.6 
42.3 
54.9 
23.3 
49.8 

44.3 
61.1 
42.2 
48.5 


17.1 
32.0 
35.7 
30.0 
21.4 
33.2 
52.6 

41.2 
29.7 
23.3 
13.7 
20.4 
23.7 


32.2 
9.4 


46.0 
39.7 

13.1 
74.0 
70.6 
12.4 
6.8 

7.7 
64.9 
54.1 
59.2 
68.7 
48.0 

4.8 


Lbs. 
0.7 
0.6 
1.3 
1.1 

14.6 
0.8 

1.4 
2.8 
1.5 
2.5 
3.3 

29.0 
6.9 
2.4 

17.3 
9.6 
1.7 
9.0 

10.7 

18.2 

8.0 

35.6 

7.2 
7.6 


1.4 
11.6 

0.5 
0.6 
1.1 
2.6 
0.1 


Lbs. 
32.3 
16.0 
37.1 
32.8 
53.6 
42.6 

17.9 
14.6 
15.8 
17.4 
15.8 

36.2 
54.2 
60.0 
29.4 
72.5 
6.7 
26.9 

31.5 
26.1 
52.5 
44.6 
76.2 
49.9 


40.0 
10.7 


42.1 
49.9 

1.6 
1.2 
7.6 
8.0 
0.9 

1.4 
12.9 
14.5 

4.3 
15.4 
27.4 

5.8 


Lbs. 
8.2 
3.1 
12.0 
10.1 
10.4 
12.0 


8.4 
7.2 
6.5 
4.7 

13.9 
16.6 
17.4 
10.5 
30.4 
4.3 
11.0 

16.0 
12.2 
21.5 
12.4 
20.0 
20.0 


16.1 

4.2 


17.4 
6.0 

0.1 
0.6 
2.9 
0.5 
0.2 

0.3 
2.2 
0.5 
1.2 
1.5 
8.5 


264 


APPENDIX. 


Table  II. 


Nutrients   and  Fertilizer   Constituents   of  Com- 
mon Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


(Name  of  feed 


•a  — 

'rtO 


Digestible  nutrients    Fertilizing  constitu- 
in  100  pounds         ents  in  1 ,000  pounds 


II 

Oq. 


6  rt 


p:^ 


Factory  by-products— Continued 

Cow's  milk  (colostrom) 

Skim  milk 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Meat  scrap 

Meat  and  bone  meal 

Dried  blood 

Tankage 

Dried  fish 

Dried  roughage 
Fodder     corn     (ears,     if     any, 

remaining) 

Com  stover  (ears  removed) .  . . 

English  hay 

Hay  for  mixed  grasses 

Timothy  (all  analyses) 

Timothy  (cut  in  full  bloom) .... 
Timothy  (cut  soon  after  bloom) 

Timothy  (cut  nearly  ripe) 

Meadow  foxtail 

Orchard  grass 

Red  top 

White  top 

Meadow  fescue 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

Tall  oat 

Italian  rye  grass 

Perennial  rye  grass 

Rowen  hay 

Bermuda  grass 

Johnson  grass 

Macaroni  wheat 

Barley 

Oat 

Emmer  (speltz) 

Barnyard  millet 

Hungarian  grass 

Wild  oat  grass 

Prairie  gra.ss 

Buffalo  grass 

Gama  grass 

Texas  blue  grass 

Salt  marsh  grass 

Ox-eye  daisy 

Australian  salt  bush 


Lbs, 

25.4 

9.4 

9.9 

6.2 

89.3 
94.0 
91.5 
93.0 
89.2 


57.8 
59.5 
86.0 
84.7 
86.8 
85.0 
85.8 
85.9 
93.4 
90.1 
91.1 
86.0 
80.0 

86.0 
86.0 
91.5 
86.0 
86.0 
92.9 
89.8 
93.0 
85,0 
86.0 
93.4 

86.0 
86.0 
85.7 
90.8 

85.0 
85.7 
85.7 
89.6 
89.7 
93.0 


Lbs. 
17.6 
2.9 
3.8 
0.6 

66.2 
36.7 
70.9 
50.1 
45.0 


2.5 
1.4 
4.5 
4.2 
2.8 
3.4 
2.5 
2.1 
5.3 
4.9 
4.8 
6.8 
4.2 

4.4 
3.3 
4.5 
6.1 
7.9 
6.4 
2.9 
4.4 
5.7 
4.7 
7.0 

5.2 
5.0 
2.9 
3.0 

3.0 
4.2 
5.1 
3.1 
3.7 
3.8 


Lbs. 
2.7 
5.3 
3.9 
5.0 


34.6 
31.2 
44.0 
42.0 
42.4 
43.3 
39.2 
40.1 
41.0 
42.4 
46.9 
40.6 
36.9 

40.2 
41.4 
43.4 
37.8 
42.2 
44.9 
45.6 
48.7 
43.6 
36.7 
43.9 

38.6 
46.9 
48.7 
42.9 

42.0 
39.9 
36.3 
39.7 
41.0 
28.8 


Lbs. 
3.6 
0.3 
1.0 
0.2 

13.4 
10.6 
2.5 
11.6 
11.4 


1.2 
0.7 
1.2 
1.3 
1.3 
1.4 
1.5 
1.1 
1.3 
1.4 
1.0 
1.5 
1.5 

0.7 
1.1 
0.9 
1.2 
1.4 
1.6 
0.8 
0.8 
1.0 
1.7 
0.6 

0.8 
1.1 
1.7 
1.6 

1.6 
0.9 
1.4 
0.9 
1.7 
0.7 


Lbs. 

28.2 
5.0 
6.4 
1.0 

114.0 
63.2 

135.0 
86.2 

77.4 


7.2 
6,1 
12.6 
11.9 
9.4 
9.6 
9.1 
8.0 
14.9 
12.9 
12.6 
17.9 
11.2 

12.5 
10.3 
12.0 
16.2 
18.2 
17.1 
11.5 
10.9 
14.1 
14.2 
17.1 

16.9 
12.1 
8.0 
9.9 

7.1 


12.3 
18,6 


Lbs. 
6.6 
2.1 
1.7 
1,1 

81.1 
146.8 

13.5 
139.0 
140.0 


3.7 
3.6 

4.0 

4.0 

7.6 
7.4 
4.3 


4.3 
4.3 


2.5 
4.4 
5.9 


Lbs. 
1.1 
2.0 
1.6 
2,0 


7,7 
3.0 
3,0 


8,9 
10,9 
16,1 
15,5 
14.2 
14,1 


16,9 
10.2 

21.0 

15.7 

24.6 
24.1 
14.9 


28,8 
15.4 


7.2 

12.5 

v21,3 


APPENDIX. 


265 


Table  II. 


Nutrients   and   Fertilizer   Constituents   of   Com- 
mon Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


Name  of  feed 


aJ 


Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds 


O  ft 


Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1 ,000  pounds 


^% 


Dried  roughage — Continued 

Red  clover 

Red  clover  in  bloom 

Mammoth  red  clover 

Alsike  clover 

White  clover 

Crimson  clover 

Japan  clover 

Sweet  clover 

Soy  bean 

Cowpea 

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa  leaves 

Bur  clover 

Hairy  (winter)  vetch 

Peanut  vine 

Velvet  bean 

Beggar  weed 

Sanf  oin 

Wheat  and  vetch 

Oat  and  pea 

Oat  and  vetch 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover 

Mixed  rowen 

Straw  and  chaff 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Barley 

Millet 

Buckwheat 

Field  bean 

Soy  bean 

Wheat  chaff 

Oat  chaff 

Fresh  green  roughage 
Fodder  com  (all  varieties) . . . 

Dent  varieties 

Dent  (kernels  glazed) 

Flint  varieties 

Flint  (kernels  glazed) 

Sweet  varieties 

Sweet  com  (without  ears) . . . , 

Red  kafir  corn 

White  kafir  com 

Teosinte 

Yellow  milo  maize 


Lbs. 

Lbs. 

84.7 

7.1 

79.2 

7.7 

78.8 

6.2 

90.3 

8.4 

90.3 

11.5 

90.4 

10.5 

89.0 

9.1 

92.1 

11.9 

88.2 

10.6 

89.5 

9.2 

91.9 

10.5 

95.1 

16.8 

91.0 

8.2 

88.7 

11.9 

92.4 

6.7 

^0.0 

9.6 

90.8 

6.8 

85.0 

10.4 

85.0 

10.6 

89.5 

7.6 

85.0 

8.3 

87.1 

5.8 

83.4 

8.0 

90.4 

0.8 

92,9 

0.7 

90.8 

1.3 

85.8 

0.9 

85.0 

0.9 

90.1 

1.2 

95.0 

3.6 

89.9 

2.3 

85.7 

1.2 

85,7 

1.5 

20.7 

1.0 

21.0 

0.9 

26.6 

1.1 

20.2 

1.1 

22,9 

1.5 

20.9 

1.2 

20.0 

0.7 

18.4 

0.8 

16.6 

0.9 

9.9 

0.9 

16.8 

1.1 

Lbs. 
37.8 
34.0 
34.7 
39.7 
42.2 

34.9 
37.7 
36.7 
40.9 
39.3 
40.5 
35.9 

39.0 
40.7 
42.2 
52.5 
42.8 
36.5 
36.8 
41.5 
35.8 
41.8 
40.1 


35.2 
39.6 
39.5 
40.1 
34.3 
37.4 
39.7 
40.1 
25.4 
33,0 


11.9 

12.2 

15.0 

11.4 

13.2 

12.6 

11.6 

9.7 

8.3 

4.9 

9.3 


Lbs. 
1.8 
2.8 
2.1 
1.1 
1.5 

1.2 
1.4 
0.5 
1.2 
1.3 
0.9 
1.3 

2.1 
1.6 
3.0 
1.4 
1.6 
2.0 
1.2 
1.5 
1.3 
1.3 
1.5 


0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.6 
0.6 
0.5 

1.0 
0.6 
0.7 


0.4 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 
0.6 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.5 
0.2 
0.3 


Lbs. 
19.7 
19.9 
17.1 
20.5 
25.1 

24.3 
22.1 
28.8 
23.8 
14.3 
23.4 
37.3 

21.8 
27.2 
17.1 
22.4 
18.9 
23.7 
23.2 
16.5 
20.5 
16.2 
18.6 


5.0 
5.0 
5.8 
7.0 
6.5 
8.0 

6.8 
7.2 
6.4 


2.9 
2.7 
3.2 
3.2 
4.3 
3.4 
2.2 
2.9 
3.0 
2.2 
2.7 


Lbs. 
5.5 

5.2 
5.0 
7.8 


9.7 
3.2 


5.0 


6.1 
6.0 


2.2 
2.5 
3.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.3 

2.5 
3.8 
1.4 


1.3 
1.2 
0.6 
1.1 


266 


APPENDIX. 


Table  II.    Nutrients   and   Fertilizer   Constituents   of   Com- 
mon Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


-t-> 

bS 

Is 

IS 

Digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds 

Fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  1 ,000  pounds 

Name  of  feed 

6| 

1 

2 

1 
£1 

1 

Fresh  green  roughage — Cont. 

Lbs. 
20.6 
15.8 

20.0 
34.9 
38.4 
27.0 
34.7 

22.7 
23.4 
37.8 
25.0 
21.0 

30.1 
26.8 
30.5 
25.0 
28.3 

28.9 
25.0 
25.0 
18.5 
20.0 

29.2 
20.0 
25.2 
19.1 
20.0 

28.2 
15.0 
16.4 
15.0 
18.0 
24.9 
17.8 

15.3 
15.0 
13.0 
16.0 
20.0 

20.0 
20.3 

Lbs. 
0.6 
0.5 

2.5 
2.8 
1.5 
1.2 
1.9 

1.7 
2.1 
2.5 
1.1 
1.9 

1.6 
1.5 
1.2 
0.6 
1.3 

2.0 
1.1 
1.6 
0.6 
0.8 

2.9 
2.0 
2.6 
2.4 
2.5 

3.6 
1.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.5 
3.1 
2.7 

1.8 
2.6 
2.3 
1.9 
2.1 

2.1 

1.8 

Lbs. 
11.6 
9.5 

10.1 
19.7 
19.9 
13.4 
21.3 

12.0 
14.1 
18.2 
12.4 
10.4 

18.6 
12.6 
15.7 
13.7 
13.4 

15.9 
13.6 
14.4 
10.0 
11.0 

13.6 
9.1 

11.4 
9.1 
8.4 

12.1 
6.6 

8.7 
6.4 
7.7 
11.0 
8.4 

6.9 
6.8 
5.3 
7.0 
6.5 

9.1 
10.2 

Lbs. 
0.3 
0.3 

0.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.5 

0.4 
0.4 
1.0 
0.5 
0.3 

0.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.2 
0.4 

0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 

0.7 
0.2 
0.5 
0.5 
0.4 

0.4 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
0.3 
0.5 
0.4 

0.3 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 

0.4 
0.4 

Lbs. 
2.1 
1.9 

5.6 
6.6 
5.0 
4.2 

4.5 

3.8 
4.2 
5.4 
2.6 
4.3 

3.8 
5.0 
3.8 
1.9 
3.5 

5.0 
3.4 
3.8 
1.9 
2.4 

7.0 
4.8 
6.2 
5.0 
6.1 

7.7 
4.3 
3.8 
5.8 
6.7 
6.4 
5.6 

4.5 
5.0 
4.5 
3.7 
4.5 

4.5 
3.8 

Lbs. 
0.7 
0.9 

2,6 

2.6 
1.6 

1.6 
2.5 
1.3 

2.9 

1.2 
2.0 
1.1 
1.5 
0.7 

1.5 

1.1 

1.2 
2.4 

1.3 
1.0 
1.3 
1.4 

1.4 

1.6 
1.1 
1.1 
1.3 
2.0 

1.5 

Lbs. 
3  4 

4  4 

Fresh  green  hay 

7  4 

Timothy 

7.6 
7  6 

Wheat  forage 

6  0 

7  1 

Oat  forage  (in  milk) 

3  8 

11  4 

Tall  oat  grass 

Johnson  grass 



4  2 

Japanese  millet 

3.4 
5  8 

Pearl  millet 

7  1 

4  7 

Red  clover 

4  8 

2  0 

4  0 

Sweet  clover 

6  7 

Alfalfa 

5  6 

Spring  vetch 

Cowpea 

Hairy  vetch  (winter) 

Hairy  vetch  (in  bloom) 

Soy  bean 

4.5 
4.6 

5.2 

5  6 

Velvet  bean 

Canada  field  pea  . 

5  0 

Canada  field  pea  (in  bud) 

Canada  field  pea  (in  bloom) 

Canada  field  pea  (in  pod) 

Barley  and  vetch 

4.4 
3.2 
3.7 

5  7 

Barley  and  peas 

Oats  and  peas 

5.0 

APPENDIX. 


267 


Table  II.    Nutrients   and   Fertilizer   Constituents   of 
MON  Feeding  Stuffs.— Continued. 

Com- 

1 
la 

a 

-J 

is 

Digestible  nutrients   Fertilizing  constitu- 
in  100  pounds        ents  in  1 ,0(X)  pounds 

Name  of  feed 

Oft 

2 

J3 

c2 

Fresh  green  hay— Continued 
Oats  and  vetch 

Lbs. 
20.0 
20.0 
25.0 

20.9 
11.5 

9.1 
13.5 

9.9 

11.4 
11.4 

11.7 
20.5 
28.9 
20.5 
34.0 

22.2 
14.3 
10.0 
12.0 
9.1 
19.2 

20.9 
26.4 
26.3 
23.9 
26.0 
19.2 

28.0 
49.9 
25.8 
20.7 
29.7 
15.0 

16.2 
25.9 
23.2 
30.2 
24.0 
21.0 

Lbs. 
2.3 
2.6 
2.3 

1.1 
1.2 
1.0 
1.3 
0.9 

0.8 
1.0 

1.1 
1.3 
0.8 
0.6 
0.8 

0.8 
2.0 
2.3 
1.9 
1.0 
1.4 

0.9 
1.4 
1.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.7 

1.5 
3.4 
2.7 
1.5 
4.6 
0.7 

0.4 
0.3 
2.1 
2.2 
1.6 
1.6 

Lbs. 
10.0 
10.3 
14.6 

15.7 
7.9 
5.5 
9.8 
6.4 

7.7 
8.1 

10.1 
14.7 
22.9 
9.1 
28.9 

16.5 
8.2 
5.9 
5.0 
5.8 
8.3 

11.4 
14.2 
14.9 
13.5 
13.1 
9.0 

9.2 
25.5 

9.6 

8.6 
11.5 

9.6 

10.1 
13.7 
13.1 
12.9 
13.2 
9.2 

Lbs. 
0.2 
0.3 
0.5 

0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 

0.3 
0.2 

0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
5.6 
0.2 

0.2 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 

0.6 
0.7 
0.7 
0.2 
0.6 
0.2 

0.5 
1.0 
1.3 
0.9 
1.8 
0.5 

0.4 
0.9 
0.8 
0.8 
0.7 
0.7 

Lbs. 
4.8 
5.4 
4.6 

3.4 
2.4 
2.2 
2.9 
2.1 

1.8 
1.9 

2.6 

4.2 
2.4 

2.0 

1.2 

3.5 
4.2 
4.2 
2.1 
2.9 

2.7 
4.3 
3.5 
1.3 
2.7 
3.8 

6.7 
9.4 
6.6 
4.3 
10.1 
1.9 

2.2 
2.4 
4.5 
6.1 
4.0 
4.5 

Lbs. 
1.4 

1.6 
0.8 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 

0.9 
1.2 

2.0 
1.4 
0.8 

1.0 

0.1 
1.2 
1.1 
1.5 

1.6 

1.1 
1.1 

1.5 
1.4 

1.6 
1.5 
4.2 
1.5 

1.5 
11 

Lbs. 
3  0 

Wheat  and  vetch 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover 

Roots  and  tubers 
Potato 

5.8 
4  8 

Mangel 

3.8 

3  7 

3  4 

Carrot 

Rutabaga 

Parsnip 

Artichoke 

2.6 
4.9 

4.4 
4  7 

Sweet  potato 

3  7 

Chufa 

Cassava 

Miscellaneous 

Apples 

Dwarf  essex  rape 

Cabbage 

Sugar  beet  leaves 

4.0 

1.7 
3.5 
4.3 
6.2 

Field  pumpkin 

0.9 

Silage 

3.7 

Corn  (recent  analyses) 

Corn  (ears  removed) 

3.7 
1.9 

Millet 

6.2 

Rye 

Red  clover 

Canada  field  pea 

7.5 

4.6 

Brewers'  grains. 

0  5 

Apple  pomace 

Com  cannery  refuse   (husk) .  . . 

Com  cannery  refuse  (cobs) 

Pea  cannery  refuse 

Cowpea  and  soy  bean 

Com  and  soy  bean 

Barnyard  millet  and  soy  bean .  . 

4.0 

3.6 
4.4 

268  APPENDIX. 


INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES 
(From  Government  Reports.) 
Standard  Bordeaux  Mixture. 

Copper  sulphate   (bluestone)   6  pounds 

Lime  4  pounds 

Water  to  make 50  gallons 

This  mixture  often  injures  the  foliage  of  the  peach  and  the 

Japanese  plum,  and  sometimes  russets  the  fruits  of  apples  and 

pears. 

The  5-5-50  Bordeaux  Mixture  Formula. 

Copper  sulphate   — 5  pounds 

Lime   ' 5  pounds 

Water  to  make 50  gallons 

When  this  mixture  is  used  there  is  less  danger  of  scorching  or 
russeting  the  fruit  than  when  the  "Standard  Mixture"  is  used. 

Peach  Bordeaux  Mixture. 

Copper   sulphate   3  pounds 

Lime   9  pounds 

Water  to  make 50  gallons 

This  form  of  bordeaux  mixture  is  more  harmless  to  the  foliage 
on  account  of  the  excess  of  lime. 

Dust  Bordeaux  Mixture, 

(1)  Dissolve  4  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  in  4  gallons  of  water. 

(2)  Dissolve  4  pounds  of  lime  in  4  gallons  of  water. 

(3)  Prepare  60  pounds  of  slaked  lime  dust.  The  lime  dust  is 
best  prepared  by  slowly  sprinkling  a  small  quantity  of 
water  over  a  heap  of  quicklime,  using  barely  enough  water 
to  cause  the  lime  to  crumble  into  a  dust. 

The  first  two  solutions  should  be  poured  together  into  a  tub. 
Allow  the  resulting  precipitate  to  settle,  decant  off  the  liquid, 
pour  the  wet  mass  of  material  into  a  double  flour  sack,  and 
squeeze  out  as  much  water  as  possible.  Spread  out  the  doughlike 
mass  in  the  sun  to  dry.  Then  crumble  the  material  into  a  powder, 
and  screen,  the  powder  through  a  sieve  of  brass  wire  having  80 
meshes  to  the  inch.  Finally  mix  the  powder  with  the  slaked 
lime  dust. 


APPENDIX.  269 

COPPER  SULPHATE  SOLUTION. 

Copper  sulphate  3  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

The  manner  of  making  this  solution  is  the  same  as  for  the  bor- 
deaux mixture,  except  that  lime  is  not  added.  This  solution  is 
very  injurious  to  plants  in  foHage;  therefore  it  should  be  applied 
only  during  the  dormant  period. 

COPPER  ACETATE  SOLUTION. 

Dibasic  acetate  of  copper 6  ounces 

Water 50  gallons 

Add  the  acetate  of  copper  to  the  water  and  stir  thoroughly. 
Although  this  mixture  is  much  inferior  to  the  bordeaux  mixture 
as  a  fungicide,  it  can  be  applied  to  ripening  fruit  without  the 
staining  effect  of  the  latter.  The  copper  acetate  solution  is  in- 
jurious to  the  foliage. 

AMMONIACAL  COPPER  CARBONATE. 

Copper  carbonate 5  ounces 

Strong  ammonia  (26°  Baume) 2  to  3  pints 

Water  to  make 50  gallons 

(1)  Dilute  the  ammonia  with  about  two  gallons  of  water  in 

order  to  increase  the  solvent  action  of  the  ammonia  upon 
the  copper  carbonate. 

(2)  Add  water  to  the  carbonate  to  make  a  thin  paste. 

(3)  Pour  on  about  half  of  the  diluted  ammonia,  stir  vigorously 

for  several  minutes,  allow  it  to  settle,  pour  off  the  liquid, 
leaving  the  undissolved  copper  salt  behind.  Repeat  the 
operation  until  all  the  salt  is  dissolved. 

(4)  Add  the  remainder  of  the  water  to  make  50  gallons. 

This  mixture  is  inferior  to  the  bordeaux  mixture  as  a  fungi- 
cide. It  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  bordeaux  mixture  when  stains 
upon  ornamental  plants  and  maturing  fruits  are  objectionable. 
Plants  susceptible  to  injury  from  the  bordeaux  mixture  are  also 
likely  to  be  injured  by  the  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  solution. 

EAU  CELESTE  (MODIFIED). 

Copper  sulphate 4  pounds 

Ammonia 3  pints 

Sal  soda 5  pounds 

Water  to  make 45  gallons 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  in  10  or  12  gallons  of  water,  add 
the  ammonia  and  dilute  to  45  gallons;  then  add  the  sal  soda  and 
stir  until  dissolved.  Eau  celeste  is  an  effective  dormant  spray  for 
the  peach  leaf  curl  and  other  similar  diseases,  but  it  is  unsafe 
to  use  on  the  foliage  of  most  plants. 


270  APPENDIX. 

LIME-SULPHUR  WASH 
The  following  formula  may  be  used : 

Unslaked  lime 20  pounds 

Flowers  of  sulphur 15  pounds 

Water  to  make 45  to  50  gallons 

The  lime  should  be  slaked  in  a  small  quantity  of  water.  The 
sulphur  should  be  mixed  into  a  stiff  paste  and  added  to  the  lime 
which  has  been  slaked.  The  mixture  should  then  be  boiled  for 
an  hour,  after  which  the  full  amount  of  cold  water  can  be  added, 
The  mixture  should  be  strained  and  used  at  once.  This  mixture, 
which  is  much  used  for  scale  insects,  should  be  applied  just  be- 
fore the  buds  open. 

SELF-BOILED   LIME-SULPHUR  MIXTURE 

Sulphur 10  pounds 

Lime   10  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

Place  the  lime  in  a  barrel  and  add  enough  water  to  start  it 
slaking  and  to  keep  the  sulphur  off  the  bottom  of  the  barrel. 
Add  the  sulphur,  which  should  first  be  worked  through  a  sieve 
to  break  up  the  lumps,  and  finally  add  enough  water  to  slake 
the  lime  into  a  paste.  Considerable  stirring  is  necessary  to  pre- 
vent caking  at  the  bottom.  After  the  violent  boiling  which  ac- 
companies the  slaking  of.  the  lime  is  over,  the  mixture  should  be 
diluted  ready  for  spraying,  or  at  least  enough  cold  water  added  to 
stop  the  cooking.  The  mixture  should  then  be  strained  to  remove 
the  coarse  particles  of  lirrie,  but  all  of  the  sulphur  should  be 
worked  through  the  sieve. 
This  mixture  is  not  injurious  to  peach  foliage. 

SULPHUR  AND  RESIN  SOLUTION. 

Sulphur  (flowers  or  flour) 16  pounds 

Resin   (finely  powdered)   Vi  pound 

Caustic  soda   (powdered)    10  pounds 

Water  to  make 6  gallons 

(1)  Place  the  sulphur  and  the  resin,  thoroughly  mixed,  in  a 
barrel  and  make  a  thick  paste  by  adding  about  3  quarts 
of  water. 

(2)  Stir  in  the  caustic  soda.  After  several  minutes  the  mass 
will  boil,  turning  a  reddish  brown,  and  should  be  stirred 
thoroughly. 

(3)  After  boiling  has  ceased  add  about  2  gallons  of  water  and 

pour  off  the  liquid  into  another  vessel.  Then  add  water 
to  make  6  gallons.  This  form  of  stock  solution  should  be 
used  at  the  rate  of  1  gallon  to  50  of  water  for  spraying 
most  plants  and  for  soaking  seeds. 


APPENDIX.  271 

POTASSIUM  SULPHID. 

Potassium  sulphid 1  ounce 

Water _ 3  gallons 

Dissolve  the  potassium  sulphid  in  the  required  amount  of  water 
and  use  immediately.  This  mixture  is  effective  for  surface 
mildews. 

CORROSIVE   SUBLIMATE. 

Corrosive  sublimate 1  part 

Water 1000  parts 

This  solution  is  used  to  disinfect  tools  used  in  cutting  out  pear 
blight. 

PARIS  GREEN. 

For  general  purposes : 

Paris  green 1  pound 

Water 50  to  100  gallons 

For  pome  fruits  and  grapes : 

Paris   green   1  pound 

Water 150  to  200  gallons 

Milk  of  lime  from  slaking  three  pounds  of  lime  for  each  50 
gallons  of  spray  should  be  added. 

Paris  green  may  be  added  to  bordeaux  mixture.  In  that  case 
no  lime  will  need  to  be  added,  as  the  bordeaux  mixture  contains 
lime. 

ARSENATE  OF  LEAD. 
Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  2,  3,  or  4  pounds 
for  every  50  gallons  of  water  or  bordeaux  mixture.     It  is  ad- 
visable to  add  lime  water  when  the  arsenate  of  lead  is  used  with 
water. 

SCHEELE'S  GREEN. 
Scheele's  green  is  used  the  same  as  Paris  green. 

HELLEBORE. 

Hellebore  may  be  applied  dry,  diluted  with  from  5  to  10  parts 
of  flour,  or  with  water  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to  the  gallon. 

Hellebore  acts  as  an  internal  poison  to  insects,  but  is  harmless 
to  man  in  the  quantities  recommended. 

WHALE-OIL  SOAP  WASH. 

For  aphides  and  pear  psylla :  Dissolve  1  pound  of  soap  in  3  or 
4  gallons  of  water. 

For  scale  insects :  Dissolve  2  gallons  of  soap  in  1  gallon  of 
water,  and  apply  when  th^  trees  are  dormant. 


272  APPENDIX. 

MISCIBLE  OILS. 

Step  1.  Preparation  of  the  emulsifier — In  preparing  the  emul- 
sifier  an  iron  kettle  provided  with  a  board  cover  and  a  thermom- 
eter should  be  used.  The  formula  for  the  emulsifier  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

Menhaden  oil 10  gallons 

Carbolic  acid 8  gallons 

Caustic  potash . 15  pounds 

This  is  heated  to  290°  or  300°  F.  and  then  the  following  are 
added : 

Kerosene   2  gallons 

Water 2  gallons 

The  kerosene  is  added  while  the  mixture  is  at  the  high  tem- 
perature, but  the  water  must  not  be  added  until  the  mixture  has 
cooled  below  the  boiling  point. 

Step  2.  Mixing  the  emulsifier  and  the  oils — No  heat  is  re- 
quired in  the  mixing  of  the  emulsifier  with  petroleum  or  other 
oils.  The  emulsifier  may  be  used  with  kerosene  or  with  crude 
petroleum,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  resin  or  other  oils. 
The  following  is  easily  made  and  is  efficient  as  a  spray  while 
trees  are  dormant: 

Emulsifier    3  2-3  gallons 

Paraffin  oil  40  gallons 

Resin  oil  6  gallons 

Sufficient  water  to  give  a  ready  emulsion. 

From  3  to  5  gallons  of  the  miscible  oil  are  used  to  make  50 
gallons  of  spray. 

TOBACCO  SOLUTION. 

Tobacco  solutions  must  be  strong  in  order  to  make  an  effective 
spray.  One  nound  of  tobacco  should  be  steeped  in  each  gallon 
of  water.  This  solution  is  effective  as  a  spray  against  aphides 
and  thrips. 

LIME-SULPHUR  SPRAY  CALENDAR  FOR  APPLES. 

The  first  spraying  for  San  Jose  scale  and  other  pests  should 
be  made  while  the  buds  are  dormant  with  full  strength  lime- 
sulphur  wash  (1  part  to  9)  ;  the  second  when  the  leaf  buds  un- 
folc;  but  with  dilute  wash  (1  to  33).  Subsequent  sprayings  the 
same  as  with  bordeaux  mixture.  All  sprayings  of  the  foliage 
should  be  with  dilute  wash, 


APPENDIX. 


273 


Table  3.    Bordeaux  Spray  Calendar  for  Apples. 


Number 
of  application 

Material 

Time  of  application 

First 

Second 
Third 

Fourth 

Bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenical 

Bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenical 
Bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenical 

Half -strength  bordeaux  mixture 
and  full-strength  arsenical 

After   leaf    buds   unfold   and 
before  flower  buds  open 

Just  after  petals  fall 

7  or  8  days  later  (This  may 
be  omitted  in  dry  seasons 
and  in  dry  states.) 

3  weeks  later 

274 


APPENDIX. 


Table  4.     Statutory  Weights  of  the  Bushel. 


State  or  territory 

1 

Pi 

i2 

6 

>. 

1 
1 

03 

1 

c 
o 

'C 

I 

1 

1 
1 

G 

o 

1 

18 

0, 

ft 
< 

o 

s 

4) 

5 

1 

United  States 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

56 
56 

56 
56 
54 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
50 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

56 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

32 
32 

32 
32 
32 
32 
32 

32 
32 
32 
36 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 

32 
26 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 

32 
30 

32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 

32 
32 
32 

32 
30 
32 
32 
32 

48 

47 

45 
48 
50 

48 
48 

48 

47 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
47 
48 
48 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 

48 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
46 
47 
48 

48 
48 
48 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 

42 

52 
40 
52 
48 

52 

42 
52 
50 
52 
50 
56 

48 

48 
48 
50 
48 
52 
52 
52 

50 

48 
50 
42 
50 
42 
42 
48 
48 

42 
50 
42 

48 
52 
42 
52 
50 

56 
56 

56 
56 

56 
56 
56 

56 

SO 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 

56 

56 
56 
56 

56 
56 

70 

70 
70 

70 
70 

70 
68 
70 
70 
70 

70 
70 
72 
70 
70 
70 

70 
68 
70 

70 

70 
70 
70 

70 

20 

20 

20 
20 

20 

20 
20 
20 

20 

20 
20 
20 
20 

20 
20 
20 

20 

20 
20 
20 

20 

60 
60 

60 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
56 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 

60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
56 
60 

60 
60 
60 

60 
56 
60 
60 
60 

55 
50 
54 

60 

55 

50 

55 
46 
50 
55 

54 
56 
55 
60 
56 

50 

54 

54 

46 
50 
46 

54 

46 
50 

55 

56 
54 

57 

57 
52 

56 

57 

57 
48 
57 
57 
57 

52 

52 

54 
52 
57 
57 
57 
57 

57 

57 

5? 
55 
52 

50 
50 

52 
56 

57 

52 
57 

57 

60 

55 
60 

60 
60 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
62 
60 

60 

60 
60 
60 

60 

60 
60 
60 

62 
60 

60 
60 

60 
60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 

60 
60 

60 
60 

60 

50 

48 
48 

45 

48 
48 



44 

48 
48 
50 

48 

45 

50 

48 

50 
50 

45 

48 

50 
45 

46 

45 

50 

60 

45 

45 

45 
45 
45 
45 
45 

45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 

45 

45 
45 
42 

45 

42 
45 
45 

45 
45 

45 
45 

14 
14 

14 

14 
14 
14 
14 
14 

14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 

14 
14 

Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

— 

60 

California 

Colorado 

60 

60 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

60 

Idaho 

60 

Illinois 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

Maryland 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

60 

64 

60 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

60 
60 
60 
60 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

60 
60 
60 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

60 
60 
60 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

APPENDIX. 


275 


Table  5.    Average  Composition  of  Farm  Manures. 


Pounds  per  hundred 

;      Kind  of  manure 

Water 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Lime 

Cow  manure  (fresh) .  .  . 
Horse  manure  (fresh) . . . 
Sheep  manure  (fresh) . . 
Hog  manure  (fresh) .  .  . 
Hen  manure  (fresh) .  .  . 
Mixed  stable  manure.  . 

85.3 
71.3 
64.6 
72.4 
56.0 
75.0 

0.38 
0.58 
0.83 
0.45 
1.63 
0.50 

0.16 
0.28 
0.23 
0.19 
1.54 
0.26 

0.40 

0.53 

0.67 

0.60 

0.85     " 

0.63 

0.31 
0.21 
0.33 
0.08 
0.24 
0.70 

Table  6.    Digestible  Nutrients  of  Cereals. 


Carbo- 

Kind of  food 

Protein 

Fat 

hydrates 

Ash 

Oat  preparations: 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Oats,  whole  grain 







— 

Oatmeal,  raw 

12.5 
12.5 

6.5 
6.7 

65.5 
64.5 

1.4 

Rolled,  steam-cooked .  . 

1.4 

Wheat : 

Whole  grain 



— 



— 

Cracked  wheat 

8.1 

1.5 

68.7 

1.2 

Rolled,  steam-cooked .  . 

8.5 

1.6 

70.7 

1.1 

Shredded  wheat 

7.7 

1.3 

71.1 

1.4 

Crumbed  and  malted .  . 

9.1 

0.9 

73.7 

1.4 

Farina 

8.9 

1.3 

72.9 

0.3 

Rye: 

Whole  grain 



— 



— 

Flaked,  to  be  eaten  raw 

7.8 

1.3 

71.1 

1.3 

Barley: 

Whole  grain 







— 

Pearled  barley 

6.6 

1.0 

73.0 

0.8 

Buckwheat : 

Flour 

5.0 

1.1 

73.1 

0.7 

Com: 

Whole  grain 



— 



— 

Corn  meal,  unbolted. . . 

6.2 

4.2 

73.2 

1.0 

Com  meal,  bolted 

6.8 

1.7 

74.6 

0.8 

Hominy 

6.4 

0.5 

78.7 

0.2 

Pop  corn,  popped 

7.9 

4.5 

77.8 

1.0 

Hulled  corn 

1.7 

0.8 

21.8 

0.4 

Rice: 

Whole  rice,  polished .  .  . 

5.8 

0.3 

78.4 

0.4 

Puffed  rice 

5.1 
9.1 

0.5 
7.9 

84.0 
70.5 

0.3 

Crackers 

1.4 

Macaroni 

11.6 

0.8 

72.2 

1.0 

276  APPENDIX. 

Table  7.     Composition  of  Beverages. 


Kind  of  beverage 


Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fuel  value 
per   pound 


Commercial  cereal  coffee 
(0.5  ounce  to  1  pint 
water) 


Parched  corn  coffee  (1.6 
ounces  to  1  pint  water) 

Oatmeal  water  (1  ounce 
to  1  pint  water) 


Coffee  (1  ounce  to  1  pint 
water) 


Tea  (0.5  ounce  to  1  pint 
water) 


Cocoa   (0.5   ounce   to    1 
pint  milk) 


Cocoa  (0.5  ounces  to   1 
pint  water) 


Skimmed  milk. 


Per  cent. 

98.2 

99.5 
99.7 

98.9 

99.5 

84.5 

97.1 
90.5 


Per  cent. 
0.2 


0.2 
0.3 


Per  cent. 


0.2 
0.2 
3.8 

0.6 

3.4 


Per  cent. 

1.4 

0.5 
0.3 

0.7 

0.6 

6.0 


0.9 
0.3 


Calories 

30 

13 
11 

16 

15 

365 

65 
170 


APPENDIX.  277 


Table  8.    Average 


Composition    of    Common     Human    Food 
Products. 


Food  materials  (as  purchased) 

fc 
rt 
^ 

c 

1 

i 

1 

ANIMAL  FOOD 
Beef,  fresh: 
Chuck  ribs 

Per 
cent 

16.3 
10.2 
13.3 
12.7 
12.8 
27.6 
20.8 

7.2 
20.7 
36.9 
16.4 
18.7 
15.7 

8.4 
6.0 
4.7 

21.3 
14.2 
3.4 
24.5 
20.7 

9.9 
18.4 
16.0 
21.2 
17.2 

19.1 
17.4 

10:7 
19.7 
12.4 

13.6 
18.2 

7.7 

3.3 

Per 
cent 

52.6 
54.0 
52.5 
52.4 
54.0 
45.9 
43.8 
63.9 
60.7 
45.0 
42.9 
56.8 
49.1 
50.4 

49.2 
58.9 
53.7 
51.8 
51.8 

52.0 
60.1 
68.3 
54.2 
56.2 

39.0 
51.2 
42.0 
41.6 
45.4 

45.5 
52.9 

48.0 
41.8 
44.9 
66.5 

34.8 

36.8 

7.9 

17.4 

55.2 
39.8 
57.2 

88.6 

Per 

cent 

15.5 
17.0 
16.1 
19.1 
16.5 
14.5 
13.9 
19.3 
19.0 
13.8 
12.8 
16.4 
14.5 
15.4 

14.3 
11.9 
26.4 
25.5 
26.3 

15.4 
15.5 
20.1 
15.1 
16.2 

13.8 
15.1 
13.5 
12.3 
13.8 

15.4 
15.9 

13.5 
13.4 
12.0 
18.9 

14.2 

13.0 

1.9 

9.1 

18.2 
13.0 
19.6 

2.1 

Per 
cent 

15.0 
19.0 
17.5 
17.9 
16.1 
11.9 
21.2 
16.7 
12.8 
20.2 
7.3 
9.8 
17.5 
18.3 

23.8 
19.2 
6.9 
22.5 
18.7 

11.0 
7.9 
7.5 
6.0 
6.6 

36.9 
14.7 
28.3 
24.5 
23.2 

19.1 
13.6 

25.9 
24.2 
29.8 
13.0 

33.4 
26.6 
86.2 
62.2 

19.7 
44.2 
18.6 

2.8 

Per 
cent 

1.1 
1.1 

5.0 

Per 
cent 

08 

Flank 

Loin 

0.7 
0.9 
0.8 

Sirloin  steak 

0.9 

Neck 

Ribs 

Rib  rolls 

0.7 
0.7 
09 

Round 

Rump 

Shank,  fore 

Shoulder  and  clod 

1.0 
0.7 
0.6 
09 

Fore  quarter 

0  7 

Hind  quarter 

0  7 

Beef,  corned,  canned,  pickled,  dried : 
Corned  beef 

46 

Tongue,  pickled 

Dried,  salted  and  smoked 

Canned  boiled  beef 

4.3 
8.9 
1  3 

Canned  corned  beef 

40 

Veal: 

Breast 

Leg 

0.8 
0.9 
1.0 

0  7 

Hind  quarter 

Mutton: 

Flank. 

Leg,  hind                            

0.8 

0.6 
08 

0.7 

Fore  quarter 

Hind  quarter,  without  tallow . . . 
Lamb: 

Breast 

Leg,  hind 

Pork,  fresh: 

Ham 

0.7 
0.7 

0.8 
0.9 

08 

Loin  chops 

0  8 

Shoulder 

Tenderloin 

Pork,  salted,  cured,  pickled: 

Ham,  smoked 

Shoulder,  smoked 

Salt  pork 

0.7 
1.0 

4.2 
5.5 
3  9 

Bacon,  smoked 

Sausage : 

Bologna 

Pork 

Frankfort 

Soups : 

Celery,  cream  of 

4.1 

3.8 
2.2 
3.4 

1.5 

278 


APtEMDlX. 


Table  8.    Average    Composition    of    Common    Human 
Products  . — Co  n  tinu  ed. 


Food 


Food  materials  (as  purchased) 


f^ 


j3  4> 


Soups — (continued) 

Beef 

Meat  stew 

Tomato 

Poultry: 

Chicken,  broilers 

Fowls 

Goose 

Turkey 

Fish: 

Cod,  dressed 

Halibut,  steaks  or  sections 

Mackerel,  whole 

Perch,  yellow,  dressed 

Shad,  whole 

Shad, roe 

Fish,  preserved: 

Cod,  salt 

Herring,  smoked 

Fish,  canned: 

Salmon 

Sardines 

Shellfish: 

Oysters,  solids 

Clams 

Crabs 

Lobsters 

Eggs:     Hen's  eggs 

Dairy  products,  etc.: 

Butter 

Whole  milk 

Skim  milk 

Buttermilk 

Condensed  milk 

Cream 

Cheese,  Cheddar 

Cheese,  full  cream 

VEGETABLE  FOOD 
Flour,  meal,  etc. : 

Entire  wheat  flour 

Graham  flour 

"Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  process 

High-grade  and  medium 

Low  grade 

Macaroni,  vermicelli,  etc 

Wheat  breakfast  food 

Buckwheat  flour 

Rye  flour 

Com  meal 

Oat  breakfast  food 

Rice 

Tapioca 

Starch 


Per 

Per 

cent 

cent 



92.9 



84.5 



90.0 

41.6 

43.7 

25.9 

47.1 

17.6 

38.5 

22.7 

42.4 

29.9 

58.5 

17.7 

61.9 

44.7 

40.4 

35.1 

50.7 

50.1 

35.2 

71.2 

24.9 

40.2 

44.4 

19.2 



63.5 

5.0 

53.6 



88.3 



80.8 

52.4 

36.7 

61.7 

30.7 

11.2 

65.5 



11.0 



87.0 

■ 

90.5 



91.0 



26.9 



74.0 



27.4 



34.2 



11.4 



11.3 



12.0 



12.0 



10.3 



9.6 



13.6 



12.9 



12.5 



7.7 



12.3 



11.4 

Per 
cent 
4.4 
4.6 
1.8 

12.8 
13.7 
13.4 
16.1 

11.1 
15.3 
10.2 
12.8 
9.4 
20.9 

16.0 
20.5 

21.8 
23.7 

6.0 

10.6 

7.9 

5.9 

13.1 

1.0 
3.3 
3.4 
3.0 
8.8 
2.5 
27.7 
25.9 


13.8 
13.3 

11.4 
14.0 
13.4 
12.1 
6.4 
6.8 
9.2 
16.7 
8.0 
0.4 


Per 
cent 
0.4 
4.3 
1.1 

1.4 
12.3 
29.8 
18.4 

0.2 

4.4 
4.2 
0.7 
4.8 
3.8 

0.4 
8.8 

12.1 
12.1 

1.3 
1.1 
0.9 
0.7 
9.3 

85.0 

4.0 

0.3 

0.5 

8.3 

18.5 

36.8 

33.7 


1.9 

2.2 

1.0 
1.9 
0.9 
1.8 
1.2 
0.9 
1.9 
7.3 
0.3 
0.1 


Per 
cent 
1.1 
5.5 
5.6 


3.3 
5.2 
0.6 
0.2 


5.0 
5.1 
4.8 
54.1 
4.5 
4.1 
2.4 


71.9 
71.4 

75.1 
71.2 
74.1 
75.2 
77.9 
78.7 
75.4 
66.2 
79.0 
88.0 
90.0 


Appendix. 


279 


Table  8.    Average    Composition    of    Common     Human    Food 
Products. — Continued. 


Food  materials  (as  purchased) 

s 

1 

1 

15 
(a 

< 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

Bread,  pastry,  etc: 

White  bread 



35.3 
43.6 
35.7 
38.4 
35.7 

9.2 
5.4 
8.9 
9.7 
9.0 

1.3 
1.8 
1.8 
0.9 
0.6 

53.1 
47.1 
52.1 
49.7 
53.2 

1.1 

Brown  bread 

2.1 

Graham  bread 

1.5 

Whole  wheat  bread 

1.3 

Rye  bread 

1.5 

Cake 



19.9 

6.3 

9.0 

63.3 

1.5 

Cream  crackers 



6.8 

9.7 

12.1 

69.7 

1.7 

= 

4.8 
5.9 

11.3 
9.8 

10.5 
9.1 

70.5 
73.1 

2.9 

Soda  crackers  . . 

2  1 

Sugars,  etc: 

Molasses 









70.0 

— 

Candy 

Honey 

Sugar,  granulated 









96.0 

— 









100.0 

_ 

Maple  syrup 









71.4 



Vegetables: 

Beans,  dried 



12.6 

22.5 

1.8 

59.6 

3.5 

Beans,  Lima,  shelled 



68.5 

7.1 

0.7 

22.0 

1.7 

Beans,  string 

7.0 

83.0 

2.1 

0.3 

6.9 

0.7 

Beets 

20.0 
15.0 

70.0 

77.7 

1.3 
1.4 

0.1 
0.2 

7.7 
4.8 

09 

Cabbage 

0.9 

Celery 

20.0 

75.6 

0.9 

0.1 

2.6 

0.8 

Corn,  green  (sweet)  edible  portion 

75.4 

3.1 

1.1 

19.7 

0.7 

Cucumbers 

15.0 

81.1 

0.7 

0.2 

2.6 

0.4 

Lettuce 

15.0 

80.5 

1.0 

0.2 

2.5 

0.8 

Mushrooms 

88.1 

3.5 

0.4 

6.8 

1.2 

Onions 

10.0 

78.9 

1.4 

0.3 

8.9 

0.5 

Parsnips 

20.0 

66.4 

1.3 

0.4 

10.8 

Peas  (Pisum  sativum) ,  dried .  .  . 



9.5 

24.6 

1.0 

62.0 

2.9 

Peas  (Pisum  sativum),  shelled. . 



74.6 

7.0 

0.5 

16.9 

1.0 

Cowpeas,  dried 

13.0 

21.4 

1.4 

60.8 

3.4 

Potatoes 

20.0 

62.6 

1.8 

0.1 

14.7 

0.8 

Vegetables: 

Rhubarb 

40.0 

56.6 

0.4 

0.4 

2.2 

0.4 

Sweet  potatoes 

20.0 

55.2 

1.4 

0.6 

21.9 

0.9 

Spinach 

92.3 

2.1 

0.3 

3.2 

2.1 

Souash 

50.0 

44.2 

0.7 

0.2 

4.5 

0.4 

Tomatoes 

94.3 

0.9 

0.4 

3.9 

0.5 

Turnips 

30.0 

62.7 

0.9 

0.1 

5.7 

0.6 

Vegetables,  canned: 

Baked  beans 



68.9 
85.3 

6.9 
3.6 

2.5 
0.2 

19.6 
9.8 

2.1 

Peas  (pisum  sativum) ,  green .  . . 

1.1 

Corn,  green 



76.1 

2.8 

1.2 

19.0 

0.9 

Succotash 



75.9 

3.6 

1.0 

18.6 

0.9 

Tomatoes 



94.0 

1.2 

0.2 

4.0 

0.6 

Fruits,  berries,  etc.,  fresh: 

Apples 

25.0 

63.3 

0.3 

0.3 

10.8 

0.3 

Bananas 

35.0 

48.9 

0.8 

0.4 

14.3 

0.6 

Grapes 

25.0 

58.0 

1.0 

1.2 

14.4 

0.4 

■   Lemons 

30.0 

62.5 

0.7 

0.5 

5.9 

0.4 

M  uskmelons 

50.0 

44.8 

0.3 

4.6 

0  3 

m 


AtfENDlX. 


Table  8.    Average    Composition    of    Common    Human 
Products. — Continued. 


Food 


Food  materials  (as  purchased) 


o-S 


Fruits,  berries,  etc.,  fresh — Cont. 

Oranges 

Pears 

Persimmons,  edible  portion .... 

Raspberries 

Strawberries 

Watermelons 

Fruits,  dried: 

Apples 

Apricots 

Dates 

Pigs 

Raisins 

Nuts: 

Almonds 

Brazil  nuts 

Butternuts 

Chestnuts,  fresh 

Chestnuts,  dried 

Cocoanuts 

Cocoanut,  prepared 

Filberts 

Hickory  nuts 

Pecans,  polished 

Peanuts 

Pinon  (Pinus  edulis) 

Walnuts,  black 

Walnuts,  Englifh 

Miscellaneous: 

Chocolate 

Cocoa,  powdered 

Cereal  coffee,  infusion  (1  part 
boiled  in  20  parts  water) 


Per 

cent 


27.0 
10.0 


5.0 
59.4 


10.0 

10.0 

45.0 
49.6 
86.4 
16.0 
24.0 
48.8 


52.1 
62.2 
53.2 
24.5 
40.6 
74.1 
58.1 


Per 
cent 

63.4 
76.0 
66.1 
85.8 
85.9 
37.5 

28.1 
29.4 
13.8 
18.8 
13.1 

2.7 
2.6 
0.6 
37.8 
4.5 
7.2 
3.5 
1.8 
1.4 
1.4 
6.9 
2.0 
0.6 
1.0 

5.9 
4.6 


Per 

cent 

0.6 
0.5 
0.8 
1.0 
0.9 
0.2 

1.6 

4.7 
1.9 
4.3 
2.3 

11.5 
8.6 
3.8 
5.2 
8.1 
2.9 
6.3 

'7.5 
5.8 
5.2 

19.5 
8.7 
7.2 
6.9 

12.9 
21.6 


Per 
cent 

0.1 
0.4 
0.7 

0.6 
0.1 

2.2 
1.0 
2.5 
0.3 
3.0 

30.2 

33.7 

8.3 

4.5 

5.3 

25.9 

57.4 

31.3 

25.5 

33.3 

29.1 

36.8 

14.6 

26.6 

48.7 
28.9 


Per 

cent 

8.5 

12.7 

31.5 

12.6 

7.0 

2.7 

66.1 
62.5 
70.6 

74.2 
68.5 

9.5 

3.5 

0.5 

35.4 

56.4 

14.3 

31.5 

6.2 

4.3 

6.2 

18.5 

10.2 

3.0 

6.8 

30.3 
37.7 

1.4 


Per 
cent 

0.4 
0.4 
0.9 
0.6 
0.6 
0.1 

2.0 

2.4 
1.2 
2.4 
3.1 

1.1 
2.0 
0.4 
1.1 
1.7 
0.9 
1.3 
1,1 
0.8 
0.7 
1.5 
1.7 
0.5 
0.6 

2.2 
7.2 

0.2 


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